Ayatull\u0101h Ja\u02bffar Sub\u1e25\u0101n\u012b<\/strong><\/p>\n After the Prophet passed away, his followers unanimously agreed that there should be a successor to lead and guide Muslims after him. However, they disagreed both about who should succeed him and how a successor was to be chosen. As we will see in the following paragraphs, the early Sh\u012b\u02bfa and Sunn\u012bs have fundamentally different views on this issue.<\/p>\n The Sh\u012b\u02bfa believe that the Caliphate, like prophethood, is a divinely-chosen position: An Imam must be appointed by God, not the people, in the same manner as the Prophets, because An Imam must fulfill the same functions as a prophet, except for receiving revelation and bringing a new religion. However, aside from these two features, the Imam bears all the other responsibilities of the Prophet and must compensate for the shortcomings that result from his absence. This means that the Imam should interpret the Qur\u2019an, issue religious decrees and behave in a way that his personal conduct may act as a criterion for differentiating right from wrong. Such a personality can only be made through divine education. This is not to suggest that An Imam has only a spiritual and religious function and has nothing to do with people\u2019s secular lives, as An Imam is meant to provide political as well as spiritual leadership; he must also implement religious decrees, provide security, act as a judge and the commander-in-chief of Muslims in wars, etc. And it is for this reason that they say \u2018the Caliph is the general leader of secular and religious affairs of the people on behalf of the Prophet.\u2019<\/p>\n On the other hand, Sunn\u012bs see the Caliphate as a purely political institution. Maw\u0101rd\u012b, for instance, believes that An Imam is supposed to lead the army, protect the borders of the Muslim territory, protect the oppressed against the oppressors, distribute the spoils of war and lead Muslims in \u1e24ajj (al-A\u1e25k\u0101m al-\u1e62ult\u0101niyya<\/em>, 15-16). Since the Caliphate in Sunn\u012b Islam is a political institution dedicated to taking care of people\u2019s secular affairs, it is not necessary for the Caliph to be infallible or have a full awareness of the religion\u2019s doctrines and laws in the same manner as the Prophet. He only needs to lead the nation, and if he makes a mistake he will not be deposed (Ibid., 6).<\/p>\n As you can see, these represent two fundamentally different views about the Caliphate; according to the one, it is a divine affair and the Caliph must be infallible and fully aware of the teachings of the religion. According to the other, however, a Caliph is no more than a secular head of state who must be capable and sufficiently educated to lead the country. However, as far as his spiritual abilities are concerned, he only needs to be a Muslim. It is ultimately as a result of the divergence between these two views that two major streams of religious tradition have emerged: Sh\u012b\u02bfa and Sunn\u012b. While the first school has it that the Imam is appointed through revelation and that the Prophet appointed his succeeding the Imam in the last few days of his life, the second school holds that people\u2019s choice is sufficient to appoint a leader; there is no need for divine affirmation.<\/p>\n Having said that, we should not forget that Sunn\u012bs do not agree on a single way of choosing the Caliph. Rather than evaluate the previous processes of choosing the Caliph in terms of its agreement with Islamic laws, Sunn\u012bs look to the history of Islam after the Prophet for models of succession. Thus Maw\u0101rd\u012b writes that \u2018choosing An Imam can be done in two ways: choosing by a council composed of \u201cthe People of Loosing and Binding\u201d (Ahl al-\u1e25all wa al-\u02bfaqd<\/em>) or by the appointment of the previous the Imam\u2019 (al-A\u1e25k\u0101m al-\u1e62ult\u0101niyya<\/em>, 4). Azad\u012b argues, however, that the Imam could be appointed by the Prophet, the previous the Imam or the council of the People of Loosing and Binding (qtd. in Jurjani 3\/265). Moreover, Sunn\u012bs widely disagree on the number of the members of the council which is supposed to choose the Imam. Some, for example, hold that the council must consist of at least five people, as was the council which chose Ab\u016b Bakr: \u02bfUmar b. Kha\u1e6d\u1e6d\u0101b, Ab\u016b \u02bfUbayda b. Jarr\u0101\u1e25, As\u012bd b. Ha\u1e0d\u012br, Bakr b. \u1e62a\u02bfd and S\u0101lim, the\u00a0mawl\u0101<\/em>\u00a0of Abu \u1e24udhayfa. Some think that three persons are sufficient: one to give the oath of allegiance and the other two to witness to it. Yet others consider one person to suffice, pointing to the fact that \u02bfAbb\u0101s said to \u02bfAl\u012b: \u2018Hold out your hand that I may grasp it and make the pledge of allegiance to you. For if I do so, the people will say that the Prophet\u2019s cousin has become your ally and not even two people will disagree on your leadership\u2019 (al-A\u1e25k\u0101m al-\u1e62ult\u0101niyya<\/em>, 4). Such disagreements over choosing the Caliph suggests that succession to the Prophet had not been left to the people, for if it had, then the Prophet would have described the characteristics of a proper candidate to prevent people from becoming confused about it. This point is conceded by the Egyptian author, al-Khi\u1e0dr\u012b, who generally holds a rather negative position towards Sh\u012b\u02bfa, in his book\u00a0Mu\u1e25\u0101\u1e0dir\u0101t f\u012b T\u0101r\u012bkh al-Umam al-Isl\u0101miyya<\/em>, wherein he says:<\/p>\n There are no verses in the Qur\u2019an clearly telling us as to how the Prophet\u2019s successor should be determined, although there are verses that generally talk about consultation. Neither does the Prophet\u2019s tradition tell us anything about the way to choose the Caliph, although it advises the people against serious disagreements. If there had been any traditions about the caliphate, it would have clearly appeared in the theological works and\u00a0\u1e25ad\u012bth\u00a0<\/em>collections and Muslims would have become familiar with its rules and regulation just as they did with regard to prayers and fasting. (2\/161)<\/p>\n Considering the fact that the leadership of Muslims after the Prophet is vital to Sunn\u012b Muslims, and presuming that al-Khi\u1e0dr\u012b really believes what he says, there are some questions that must be answered: would it be possible for the Prophet to have said nothing about the Caliphate and the desired characteristics of a Caliph? How could we admit that the Prophet ignored the issue of succession to the leadership of the nation which he himself had founded? How could we imagine that the Prophet had uttered so many words about such minor affairs as the proper use of the lavatory, eating and drinking, sleeping and taking baths, and yet said absolutely nothing about Caliphate, leading to much conflict and bloodshed as a result? It is inconceivable that the Prophet, who was the wisest person ever to have lived and guided by divine revelation, would have neglected such an important matter!<\/p>\n If the Caliph was supposed to be chosen by a council of notables, there should have been many\u00a0a\u1e25\u0101d\u012bth<\/em>\u00a0and statements about the number of members required to constitute such a council, their qualifications (such as knowledge and piety), how and where they should be chosen, so that their decision would be completely acceptable to all. However, there is no evidence in the Qur\u2019an or the Sunna to explain any of this. At the very least, we would expect the sources to make a few things clear: who can be a member of this council? Should it be made up of religious elites, political leaders, army commanders or a mixture of all of them? Who should choose the members of such a council? And if the members of the council disagreed over a matter or person, who will have the deciding vote? While some theologians have said that the Imam is to be chosen by the council of\u00a0ahl al-\u1e25all wa al-\u02bfaqd<\/em>, it is not clear as to what this means. Does the council of \u2018ahl al-\u1e25all wa al-\u02bfaqd<\/em>\u2019 denote \u2018those who open and tie up\u2019? No one knows since there is no prophetic\u00a0\u1e25ad\u012bth\u00a0<\/em>to explain this. Such confusions as well as others imply that the idea of the Imam being chosen by that type of council is basically wrong and the matter of the succession to the Prophet could never be settled by the people. As \u1e6caha \u1e24usayn rightly suggests: \u2018if Muslims had a written system of councils, they would have resorted to it at the time of \u02bfUthm\u0101n and would have known what to do and what not to do.\u2019<\/p>\n As already mentioned, the election of Caliph through a council of \u2018ahl al-\u1e25all wa al-\u02bfaqd<\/em>\u2019 or by the votes of the Helpers (an\u1e63\u0101r<\/em>) and the Emigrants (muh\u0101jir\u016bn<\/em>), was just for the sake of appearance and, in truth, such a process only took place in the case of one person. We will now investigate the mode of election of each of the early Caliphs as depicted in the annals of history.<\/p>\n Those present at Saq\u012bfa formed a triangle whose sides each had their own agenda. Sa\u02bfd b. \u02bfUb\u0101da had, with great labor, managed to unite the tribes of Khazraj and Aws under the title of \u2018the Helpers\u2019 (an\u1e63\u0101r<\/em>) so as to resist the Emigrants (muh\u0101jir\u016bn<\/em>) who were likely to turn out as winners. However, the unity between the two tribes was largely superficial and they remained distinct in their mentality.<\/p>\n Sa\u02bfd b. \u02bfUb\u0101da, who belonged to the tribe of Khazraj, roused the Helpers with an impassioned speech when he said: \u2018You, the Helpers, always took the weighty burden of responsibility, and due to your efforts and power the headstrong and unyielding Arabs converted to Islam; the Prophet passed away being happy with all of you. Therefore, rise and take the control of power, since no one else deserves this\u2019 (\u1e6cabar\u012b 3\/218).<\/p>\n In response to Sa\u2019d\u2019s stirring speech, Ab\u016b Bakr stated: \u2018The nobility and high status of you, the Helpers, is as bright as daylight. However, while the caliphate may be given to the tribe of Khazraj, but we should note that Aws is as qualified as Khazraj. Similarly, the caliphate could be granted to Aws, but we see that Khazraj are as qualified as Aws. Besides, there has been bloodshed between these two tribes, resulting in unhealable wounds\u2019 (al-Bay\u0101n wa al-T\u0101bi\u2018\u012bn<\/em>\u00a02\/86).<\/p>\n Ab\u016b Bakr\u2019s speech shattered the sense of unity among the Helpers and caused the two tribes, which were on the same side and fighting for the same goal only moments before, to become rivals. As a result, whenever either of them wanted to deliver a speech, he would dedicate his time to bragging about his own abilities and privileges.<\/p>\n An awkward silence overwhelmed the assembly and the most critical moment in the history of this dispute arrived. Suddenly, Bash\u012br b. Sa\u02bfd, a member of the Khazraj and Sa\u02bfd b. \u02bfUb\u0101da\u2019<\/em>s cousin, who disliked the status his cousin enjoyed amongst the two tribes, stood up, broke the silence and said: \u2018The Prophet belongs to the Quraysh, hence his relatives are worthier than us to become successors.\u2019 At that very moment, Ab\u016b Bakr, seeing the Helpers had lost their unity due to Bash\u012br b. Sa\u02bfd\u2019s statement rose and said: \u2018O people, in my opinion, \u02bfUmar and Ab\u016b \u02bfUbayda are qualified and fit to be successors, so go and give an oath of loyalty to either of them.\u2019 Surely, Ab\u016b Bakr\u2019s approval of these two acted as a preliminary condition for \u02bfUmar and Ab\u016b \u02bfUbayda returning the favor by recommending Ab\u016b Bakr. And this is exactly what happened, as both \u02bfUmar and Ab\u016b \u02bfUbayda approached Ab\u016b Bakr to give an oath of loyalty to him. For his part, Ab\u016b Bakr offered his hand without delay (Ibn Hish\u0101m, 2\/599-60).<\/p>\n As\u012bd b. Ha\u1e0d\u012br, the chief of Aws, driven by excessive emotion, said to his people: \u2018if Khazraj becomes caliphs, they will never give you a share of the power. Go and give a pledge of allegiance to Ab\u016b Bakr, as soon as possible.\u2019 Those present in the meeting, following the instructions of their chieftain, pledged their loyalty to Ab\u016b Bakr. In this situation, a quarrel began, during which Sa\u02bfd b. \u02bfUb\u0101da, who was sitting in the corner of the tent, was treated disrespectfully and even, by some accounts, trampled on. Meanwhile, Ab\u016b Bakr, quickly left Saq\u012bfa to announce that he was the people\u2019s chosen successor. Thus, he became Caliph having received the votes of only five persons, namely: Himself, Bash\u012br b. Sa\u02bfd (of Khazraj), As\u012bd b. Ha\u1e0d\u012br (of Aws), and \u02bfUmar and Ab\u016b \u02bfUbayda (of the Emigrants). Meanwhile, the Khazraj present at the gathering, finding themselves defeated, began to cry out: \u2018We will take an oath of loyalty to no one, but \u02bfAl\u012b\u2019 (\u1e6cabar\u012b, 3\/202).<\/p>\n Such a hasty election, marked by tribal privileges, cannot be an ideal example of the succession council. For this reason, \u02bfUmar Ibn Kha\u1e6d\u1e6d\u0101b later considered this pledge of allegiance (bay\u02bfa<\/em>) \u2018an error\u2019 and said: \u2018By God, the oath to Ab\u016b Bakr and his selection as Caliph was an error and an unsound deed, that was undertaken without consultation. But God saved the Muslims from its evil, and anyone who takes an oath of loyalty to someone without consulting with Muslims, his oath will not be valid.\u2019 (Ibn Hish\u0101m, 2\/658; \u1e6cabar\u012b, 3\/205)<\/p>\n While the First Caliph was chosen with the votes of just a few people and gained the loyalty of others by offering them special privileges, the Second Caliph was appointed directly by the First. History tells us that when Ab\u016b Bakr was on his deathbed, he felt compelled to choose his successor. For this purpose, he called \u02bfUthm\u0101n to write and document whatever he was going to say and then he ordered him to write: \u2018This is Ab\u016b Bakr\u2019s will to the Muslims\u2026\u2019 Before finishing the sentence, however, Ab\u016b Bakr fell unconscious. At this moment, \u02bfUthm\u0101n took advantage of the opportunity and immediately wrote: \u2018I hereby appoint \u02bfUmar as my successor for you.\u2019 When Ab\u016b Bakr regained consciousness, \u02bfUthm\u0101n, quite daringly, recited for him the sentence he had just interpolated. Having realized what had happened, Ab\u016b Bakr became happy and justified \u02bfUthm\u0101n\u2019s action in the following manner: \u2018Fearing that I would die and never regain my consciousness and that Muslims would be divided over determining the next Caliph, \u02bfUthm\u0101n with quite good-intentions decided to write the name of \u02bfUmar in my will like the next Caliph.\u2019<\/p>\n In spite of the fact that the Caliph\u2019s action was criticized by a number of the Prophet\u2019s Companions, and even though \u1e6cal\u1e25a reproached Ab\u016b Bakr for having appointed an unkind man as the ruler, Ab\u016b Bakr\u2019s response to the castigations was: \u2018If God himself questioned me for what I have done, I would answer that I have given the power to the best of the people\u2019 (Ibn Ab\u012b al-\u1e24ad\u012bd, 2\/165).<\/p>\n Assuming that the foundation of the caliphate was the council of notables (\u2018the people of losing and binding\u2019), why did the Caliph disregard this fact and appointed his successor? A number of thinkers who have found Ab\u016b Bakr\u2019s actions at odds with their own theological principles maintain that Ab\u016b Bakr recommended \u02bfUmar as a candidate for the Muslims to choose him (\u02bfAbd al-Kar\u012bm Kha\u1e6d\u012bb, 288). But their account of the Second Caliph\u2019s appointment makes no sense, especially considering the reaction of some Companions who said upon learning of the news, \u2018You have fired such a poisonous and lethal arrow at us!\u2019<\/p>\n \u02bfUthm\u0101n acceded to the caliphate through a council of six members who were appointed by the Second Caliph. The structure of the council was arranged in such a way as to make sure that \u02bfAl\u012b would not be chosen as his successor. The members of the council were \u02bfAl\u012b, \u02bfUthm\u0101n, Zubayr, Sa\u02bfd b. Ab\u012b Waqq\u0101\u1e63, \u1e6cal\u1e25a, and \u02bfAbd al-Ra\u1e25m\u0101n b. \u02bfAwf.<\/p>\n In the first stage, \u1e6cal\u1e25a and Zubayr (\u02bfAl\u012b\u2019s cousin) stepped aside in favor of \u02bfUthm\u0101n and \u02bfAl\u012b, respectively. Sa\u02bfd b. Ab\u012b Waqq\u0101\u1e63 voted for \u02bfAbd al-Ra\u1e25m\u0101n (they were both from Ban\u016b Zuhra tribe). Only three people remained with equal votes. However, \u02bfUmar said that the next Caliph could only be elected on \u02bfAbd al-Ra\u1e25m\u0101n\u2019s approval. At his time, \u02bfAbd al-Ra\u1e25m\u0101n, knowing \u02bfAl\u012b very well and being certain that he would never violate (religious) principles for the sake of power, turned to \u02bfAl\u012b and said: \u2018I will take an oath of loyalty to you if you rule according to the word of God (The Qur\u2019an), the Prophet\u2019s tradition, and the practice of the previous caliphs.\u2019 Imam \u02bfAl\u012b replied: \u2018I will act according to the word of God, the Prophet\u2019s tradition, and my own knowledge.\u2019 Having heard \u02bfAl\u012b\u2019s response, \u02bfAbd al-Ra\u1e25m\u0101n turned to \u02bfUthm\u0101n and repeated his condition of approval, to which \u02bfUthm\u0101n agreed. Then \u02bfAbd al-Ra\u1e25m\u0101n took an oath of loyalty to him and hailed \u02bfUthm\u0101n as Caliph. The Muslims\u2019 and Islam\u2019s future was endangered by choosing caliphs through a ridiculous council and in this way, their leadership developed into religious belief.<\/p>\n In the following Chapters, We will speak about \u02bfAl\u012b\u2019s election through the Helpers and Emigrants taking the oath of loyalty. Moreover, we will show the legitimacy of this election and the fact that it was based entirely on the free choice of the voters, while the Umayyads and Abbasids each passed power to their own descendants like a ball.<\/p>\n After the martyrdom of \u02bfAl\u012b, \u1e24asan b. \u02bfAl\u012b received oaths of allegiance from his father\u2019s army and became Caliph for a short time. Nevertheless, Mu\u02bf\u0101wiya\u2019s machinations and plotting forced Imam \u1e24asan to abdicate the caliphate for the greater good of Islamic society. Then, Mu\u02bf\u0101wiya, by means of conspiracy, violence, and due to the ignorance of the people of Syria (Sham) became Caliph and died in 60\/679.<\/p>\n Following the death of Mu\u02bf\u0101wiya, Yaz\u012bd b. Mu\u02bf\u0101wiya, the most vicious and corrupt member of Ab\u016b Sufy\u0101n\u2019s family, became Caliph and Commander of the Faithful (Am\u012br al-Mu\u02bemin\u012bn<\/em>). Even though he only reigned for a short period of time, his actions as ruler were so vicious that one would be ashamed to recount them. In the first year of his reign, Yaz\u012bd murdered \u1e24usayn Ibn \u02bfAl\u012b. In the second, the Battle of \u1e24arra took place in Medina, resulting in the death of some 700 of the eminent Helpers and Emigrants. In the third year, he sent an army to Mecca to fight \u02bfAbd All\u0101h b. Zubayr in Mecca. Yaz\u012bd\u2019s Army, which was positioned on the mountains above Mecca and dominated the town, launched stones and fire at the Holy Sanctuary and the Ka\u2019ba until it was burnt and its walls collapsed. This event happened on Saturday 3rd<\/sup>\u00a0of Rabi al-Awwal 64\/30th<\/sup>\u00a0October 683. Eleven days later, Yaz\u012bd died.<\/p>\n After Yaz\u012bd\u2019s death and the two-month reign of his son, Mu\u02bf\u0101wiya II, the Marwanids came to power and, like the tribes of old, passed authority to their own descendants:<\/p>\n The reign of the Marwanids ended in 132\/750. Their wrongdoing was so widespread and infamous that the Islamic nation, through a series of uprisings, destroyed all the Marwanids, leaving no trace of them to save their infamy and disgrace. We shall refrain from discussing the reign of the Abbasids here, but suffice it to say that their caliphate was also hereditary and lasted until 656\/1258. It is worth asking now: did the Prophet plan for kings to succeed him, carry out heinous oppression, and still be considered by all people to be his true successors?<\/p>\n Shia Islam (6): Baseless theories about the origins of the Sh\u012b\u02bfa<\/a><\/p><\/blockquote>\nChapter 7: Succession in the Teachings of Shi\u2019ism and Sunnism<\/h2>\n
The appointment of the caliphs as depicted in the history of Islam<\/h2>\n
The story of Saq\u012bfa<\/h4>\n
How the Second Caliph was appointed<\/h4>\n
The accession of the Third Caliph<\/h4>\n
\n