{"id":10748,"date":"2021-02-21T06:33:02","date_gmt":"2021-02-21T06:33:02","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/shiastudies.com\/en\/?p=10748"},"modified":"2021-02-21T06:33:02","modified_gmt":"2021-02-21T06:33:02","slug":"shi%ca%bfa-islam-11-principal-beliefs-shi%ca%bfa","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/shiastudies.com\/en\/10748\/shi%ca%bfa-islam-11-principal-beliefs-shi%ca%bfa\/","title":{"rendered":"Sh\u012b\u02bfa Islam (11): The principal beliefs of Sh\u012b\u02bfa"},"content":{"rendered":"

Chapter 11: The principal beliefs of Sh\u012b\u02bfa<\/h1>\n

A brief study of the history of religions and sects would reveal that all the sects of Islam were produced as the result of theological debates that took place in the first three centuries of Islam and that there was no trace of these sects at the time of the Prophet.<\/p>\n

    \n
  1. The\u00a0Khaw\u0101rij<\/em> appeared as a political movement in the year 37\/657, in the course of the Battle of \u1e62iff\u012bn when a group of people rejected the arbitration between Mu\u02bf\u0101wiya and \u02bfAl\u012b. However, they were among those people who pressed for negotiations in the first place. This political group, over the course of time, developed into a religious sect and began to establish for itself a set of primary and secondary principles.<\/li>\n
  2. The\u00a0Murji\u02bea<\/em> were a group who believed that the profession of faith alone was sufficient to make one a Muslim, regardless of a person\u2019s actions. This sect developed during the first\/seventh century, after \u02bfUthm\u0101n\u2019s murder and \u02bfAl\u012b\u2019s accession to the Caliphate. (See\u00a0Farhang-i \u02bfAq\u0101\u02beid-i Isl\u0101m\u012b<\/em>, vol. 3).<\/li>\n
  3. The\u00a0Jahmiyya<\/em>\u00a0followed the ideas of Jahm b. Safw\u0101n, who was put to death in 128\/746.<\/li>\n
  4. The\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em> was founded by W\u0101\u1e63il b. \u02bfAt\u0101, a pupil of \u1e24asan al-Ba\u1e63r\u012b. W\u0101\u1e63il was born in 80\/700, established\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>\u00a0in 105\/723 and died in 131\/748.<\/li>\n
  5. The\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em>\u00a0were founded by Ab\u016b al-\u1e24asan al-Ash\u02bfar\u012b (260\u2013324\/874\u2013936). For many years, he was an adherent of the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>, but in 305\/917, he abandoned them and became a follower of A\u1e25mad b. \u1e24anbal. However, he made alterations into Ibn \u1e24anbal\u2019s school which resulted in a new set of doctrines and therefore a new school. His doctrines were later championed by Ab\u016b Bakr al-B\u0101qill\u0101n\u012b, Ibn F\u016brak, and others and became popular amongst Sunn\u012bs.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    As well as the aforementioned sects, other schools were also produced through social and political upheavals in Islamic history. None of these schools originated in the time of the Prophet. It is only the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0that has not developed out of later political or social movements; its basic principles are taken from the Qur\u2019an, the Prophet\u2019s\u00a0Sunnah<\/em>, the teachings of the infallible Imams, and rational deductions. Moreover, Sh\u012b\u02bfa theologians only derive their doctrines from the Qur\u2019an and widely-transmitted (mutaw\u0101tir<\/em>) traditions; they never obtain these from solitary reports (akhb\u0101r \u0101\u1e25\u0101d<\/em>).<\/p>\n

    There are two prominent tenets that distinguish the Sh\u012b\u02bfa school:<\/p>\n

      \n
    1. Loyalty (wil\u0101ya<\/em>) to \u02bfAl\u012b and his descendants.<\/li>\n
    2. The supremacy of Divine Justice in both creation (takw\u012bn<\/em>) and legislation (tashr\u012b\u02bf<\/em>).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      Before fully enumerating and explaining the tenets of Sh\u012b\u02bfism, we shall study two documents, one coming from Imam al-Ri\u1e0d\u0101 (a.s) and the other presented to Imam al-H\u0101d\u012b and confirmed by him.<\/p>\n

      Imam al-Ri\u1e0d\u0101\u2019s letter to Ma\u02bem\u016bn<\/h2>\n

      The Abbasid Caliph, Ma\u02bem\u016bn, wrote to Imam al-Ri\u1e0d\u0101 asking him to explain the basic tenets of Islam to him. In response, the Imam wrote a short treatise. We will now highlight some sections of it:<\/p>\n

      \u2018Islam is to testify that there is no god but All\u0101h. He has no partner. He is the One, the Single, the Independent, the Self-Subsistent. All\u0101h is He who sees and hears all things. He is All-Powerful, Eternally Existent, Self-Sufficient, the All-Knowing whom ignorance cannot approach, the All-Powerful whom weakness cannot approach. He is an Independent, the All-Just who does no injustice. He is the Creator of all things. There is nothing like unto Him. He is the only end. He is the recipient of all prayers.<\/p>\n

      We testify that Mu\u1e25ammad is God\u2019s servant and prophet, whom He entrusted with His message and chose amongst all human beings. He is the foremost of the messengers sent by God and the Seal of the Prophets (kh\u0101tam al-anbiy\u0101\u02be<\/em>). There is no prophet after him and his religion will never be subject to change. All that the Prophet of Islam has brought is truth, manifest, and verified.<\/p>\n

      Besides having faith in the Prophet of Islam, we must believe that the previous prophets were all chosen by God and were His proofs for mankind.<\/p>\n

      We testify that the Qur\u2019an is God\u2019s true book, which no falsehood can approach; that it is sent by God, the All-Wise and All-Laudable.[1]<\/p>\n

      The Qur\u2019an is the protector of the previously revealed books. The Qur\u2019an from its first s\u016bra<\/em>\u00a0until its last is veracious and consistent; we believe in its clear verses and in its allegorical ones, in its promise and threat, in the abrogating and the abrogated, in its tales and reports, and also we believe that no one can produce a\u00a0s\u016bra<\/em>\u00a0like it.<\/p>\n

      We believe that after the Prophet\u2019s (s.a.w.a) death, the Proof of God (\u1e25ujjat all\u0101h<\/em>) for the believers on earth, the one who is supposed to take control of and manage the Muslims\u2019 affairs, and the speaking Qur\u2019an is the brother, successor, legatee and ally of the Prophet, \u02bfAl\u012b (a.s). \u02bfAl\u012b was to the Prophet as Aaron was to Moses.<\/p>\n

      He is the Commander of the Faithful (am\u012br al-mu\u02bemin\u012bn<\/em>), the leader of the righteous, the guide for the upright, the greatest of the successors, and the heir to the wisdom of the Prophets. After him, \u1e24asan b. \u02bfAl\u012b and \u1e24usayn b. \u02bfAl\u012b (a.s) are the leaders of the youths of Paradise; the next successors are as follows:<\/p>\n

      \u02bfAl\u012b b. \u1e24usayn Zayn al-\u02bf\u0100bid\u012bn, Mu\u1e25ammad b. \u02bfAl\u012b al-B\u0101qir, Ja\u02bffar b. Mu\u1e25ammad al-S\u0101diq, M\u016bs\u0101 b. Ja\u02bffar al-K\u0101\u1e93im, \u02bfAl\u012b b. M\u016bs\u0101 al-Ri\u1e0d\u0101, Mu\u1e25ammad b. \u02bfAl\u012b al-Jaw\u0101d, \u02bfAl\u012b b. Mu\u1e25ammad al-H\u0101d\u012b, \u1e24asan b. \u02bfAl\u012b al-\u02bfAskar\u012b, al-\u1e24ujjat b. al-\u1e24asan al-Mahd\u012b, the Awaited\u00a0Q\u0101\u02beim<\/em>.<\/p>\n

      We testify that they are the Divine guides and successors, that the world would never be empty of a guiding proof of God (\u1e25ujjat<\/em>), and that He has provided all people of all times with guiding proofs.<\/p>\n

      the Infallible Imams are the firm pillars raised by God, the leaders of guidance, and the proof of God on earth until the Day of Judgment. Whoever defies them misleads himself and others, and has overlooked the truth and guidance.<\/p>\n

      They alone are the interpreters of the Qur\u2019an and the Prophet\u2019s speech. Whoever dies without knowing them has died the death of ignorance.<\/p>\n

      Of the basic tenets of Islam are righteousness and the comprehension of religion, prayer (\u1e63al\u0101t<\/em>) and steadfastness in the path of religion, to honour trusts by returning them to their owners, whether they are virtuous or sinful, to prolong your prostrations in prayer, to fast, to abstain from sins and be vigilant, to patiently expect God\u2019s relief (inti\u1e93\u0101r al-faraj<\/em>), to have a pleasant demeanour in bearing hardships, and displaying good conduct and nice manners with others.<\/p>\n

      In the same treatise, the Imam refers to a number of secondary principles of Islamic law, and also highlights the differences between the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0and other schools. However, the discussion of these issues is beyond the scope of our present discussion. (\u02bfUy\u016bn Akhb\u0101r al-Ri\u1e0d\u0101<\/em>, 2\/121\u2013122)<\/p>\n

      \u02bfAbd al-\u02bfA\u1e93\u012bm al-\u1e24asan\u012b and his statement of beliefs for Imam al-H\u0101d\u012b<\/h2>\n

      \u02bfAbd al-\u02bfA\u1e93\u012bm al-\u1e24asan\u012b, a descendant of Imam \u1e24asan (a.s), was a companion of Imam al-H\u0101d\u012b (a.s) and the compiler of a book containing sermons of the Commander of the Faithful. Because of the threat of persecution by the Abbasid regime, he took refuge in the city of Rayy and maintained a low profile. He usually fasted during the days and spent his nights in worship. However, as time passed the Sh\u012b\u02bfa of the city became acquainted with him and developed a relationship with him.<\/p>\n

      \u02bfAbd al-\u02bfA\u1e93\u012bm describes his meeting with Imam al-H\u0101d\u012b in the following manner:<\/p>\n

      \u2018When the Imam saw me, he said: \u201cWelcome Ab\u016b al-Q\u0101sim! You are indeed our friend and companion.\u201d I was gladdened by the Imam\u2019s kindness. Then I said: \u201cI want to present my beliefs to you, if they are true and correct, you may confirm them so that I may maintain them and hasten to God\u2019s meeting.\u201d<\/p>\n

      Imam al-H\u0101d\u012b told me: \u2018Relate them.\u2019<\/p>\n

      I said: \u201cI believe that there is only one Blessed and Supreme God. There is nothing like unto Him, and that His attributes are both beyond agnosticism (ib\u1e6d\u0101l<\/em>) and anthropomorphism (tashb\u012bh<\/em>).[2]<\/a>\u00a0God is neither body (jism<\/em>) nor form (\u1e63\u016bra<\/em>) nor accident (\u02bfara\u1e0d<\/em>) nor substance (jawhar<\/em>); Rather He is the Creator of bodies, forms, accidents, and substances. He is the Lord, Sovereign, Creator, and Maker of all that is.<\/p>\n

      I testify that the Imams, Caliphs, and Possessors of Authority (wal\u012b al-AMR<\/em>) after \u02bfAl\u012b are as follows: al-\u1e24asan, al-\u1e24usayn,\u02bfAl\u012b b. al-\u1e24usayn, Mu\u1e25ammad b. \u02bfAl\u012b, Ja\u02bffar b. Mu\u1e25ammad, M\u016bs\u0101 b. Ja\u02bffar, \u02bfAl\u012b b. M\u016bs\u0101, Mu\u1e25ammad b. \u02bfAl\u012b, and you, Ab\u016b al-\u1e24asan.\u201d<\/p>\n

      Then, the Imam said: \u201cAfter me, my son, Imam \u1e24asan would succeed me. Now you tell me, what would people do with him?\u201d I responded: \u201cMy master, what do you mean!\u201d the Imam said: \u201cHe cannot be seen and shall not be named until God\u2019s command he comes and will spread justice in the world as it is presently filled with injustice and oppression.\u201d<\/p>\n

      I told the Imam: \u201cI believe in what you have related. Moreover, I believe that their friends are God\u2019s friends and that their enemies are God\u2019s enemies; to obey them is to obey God, and to oppose them to oppose God. In addition, I believe that the Prophet\u2019s Night Ascent (mi\u02bfr\u0101j<\/em>), the questioning in the grave, Heaven and Hell are all true and that the Day of Judgment is sure to come, and that the God of Mercy and Compassion will muster all those laying in their graves.\u201d<\/p>\n

      Finally, I said: \u201cThe obligations and duties after loyalty (wil\u0101ya<\/em>) to \u02bfAl\u012b are: prayer (\u1e63al\u0101t<\/em>), alms (zak\u0101t<\/em>),\u00a0<\/em>fasting (sawm<\/em>), pilgrimage (\u1e25ajj<\/em>), struggle (jih\u0101d<\/em>), and enjoining good and forbidding evil (al-amr bi al-ma\u02bfr\u016bf wa al-nah\u012b \u02bfan al-munkar<\/em>).\u201d\u2019<\/p>\n

      \u02bfAbd al-\u02bfA\u1e93\u012bm \u1e24asan\u012b continues: \u2018After listening to my statements, Imam al-H\u0101d\u012b told me: \u2018O Ab\u016b al-Q\u0101sim! What you related is truly God\u2019s religion sent for the people. You must remain firm and steadfast in this religion, so that God, both in this world and in the hereafter, will steady your feet. (al-Taw\u1e25\u012bd<\/em>, chapter 18, tradition 17)<\/p>\n

      Doctrinal works of later scholars<\/h2>\n

      In a similar vein to the aforementioned documents, classical Sh\u012b\u02bf\u012b scholars have also composed short treatises on the fundamental doctrines of Sh\u012b\u02bfism. We will detail some of these below:<\/p>\n

      Shaykh al-\u1e62ad\u016bq\u2019s I\u02bftiq\u0101d\u0101t<\/h4>\n

      Shaykh al-\u1e62ad\u016bq (d. 381\/991) has written a treatise on the doctrines of the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>, which has been published numerous times and made the subject of numerous commentaries and annotations by later scholars. In it, he writes:<\/p>\n

      \u2018Know that our belief concerning tawhid is that Allah, exalted is He, is one (w\u0101\u1e25id<\/em>) and absolutely unique (a\u1e25ad<\/em>). There is naught like unto Him; He is Prior (qad\u012bm<\/em>); He never was non-existent and never will be; He is the Hearing and the Seeing One; the Omniscient (\u02bfal\u012bm<\/em>), the Wise; the Living, the Everlasting, the Mighty (\u02bfaz\u012bz<\/em>), the Holy (qudd\u016bs<\/em>), the Knowing One (\u02bf\u0101lim<\/em>), the Powerful, the Self-Sufficient (ghan\u012b<\/em>).<\/p>\n

      He cannot be described by His Essence (jawhar<\/em>); His Body (jism<\/em>); His Form (\u1e63\u016bra<\/em>), or by His Accidental Qualities (\u02bfara\u1e0d<\/em>)\u2026 He transcends all the attributes of His creatures; He is beyond both the limitations of agnosticism and anthropomorphism.<\/p>\n

      He is a Thing (shay\u02be<\/em>), but not like other things. He is Unique (a\u1e25ad<\/em>), Self-Subsisting (Samad<\/em>), He begets not, lest He may be inherited; nor is He begotten, lest He may be associated (with others). There is nothing like unto Him; He has no equal (nidd<\/em>) or opponent (\u1e0didd<\/em>), compeer (shibh<\/em>) or consort (\u1e63\u0101\u1e25ibah<\/em>). Nothing can be compared with Him (mithl<\/em>); He has no rival (na\u1e93\u012br<\/em>), no partner (shar\u012bk<\/em>). Human eyes cannot behold Him; while He discerns (the power of) eyes. The thoughts of men cannot compass Him; while He is aware of them. \u2018Slumber overtakes Him not, nor sleep.\u2019 (Q2:255).<\/p>\n

      He is the Gracious (la\u1e6d\u012bf<\/em>) and All-Aware (khab\u012br<\/em>), the Creator (kh\u0101liq<\/em>) of all things. There is no deity (il\u0101h<\/em>) other than Him; to Him belongs creation (khalq<\/em>) and command (amr<\/em>). Blessed is All\u0101h, the Lord of the worlds. And he who believes in\u00a0tashb\u012bh<\/em>\u00a0is a polytheist (mushrik<\/em>).<\/p>\n

      And he who attributes to the Sh\u012b\u02bfa beliefs other than those that have been stated concerning Divine Unity (taw\u1e25\u012bd<\/em>) is a liar. And every report (khabar<\/em>) contrary to what I have stated concerning\u00a0taw\u1e25\u012bd<\/em>\u00a0is a fabrication. Every tradition which does not accord with the Book of God is void, and if it is to be found in the books of our scholars, it is a forgery.\u2019<\/p>\n

      In order to differentiate between the Attributes of Essence and Attributes of Action, \u1e62ad\u016bq defines a standard and then says: \u2018In the actions of the people, between determinism (jabr<\/em>) and delegation (tafw\u012bd<\/em>), we have taken the middle path.\u2019<\/p>\n

      Finally, he deals with the concepts of predestination, human nature, and free will, which are among the most important issues in theology.<\/p>\n

      About the Qur\u2019an, he says:<\/p>\n

      \u2018Our belief is that the Qur\u2019an, which Allah revealed to His Prophet Muhammad, is (the same as) the one between the two covers (daffatayn<\/em>). And it is that which is in the hands of the people and is not greater in extent than that. The number of suras as generally accepted is one hundred and fourteen. And according to us, al-\u1e0cu\u1e25\u0101 (S\u016bra<\/em>\u00a093) and al-Inshir\u0101\u02be (S\u016bra<\/em>\u00a094) together form one\u00a0s\u016bra<\/em>; and Al-Fil (S\u016bra<\/em>\u00a0105) and\u00a0Quraysh<\/em>\u00a0(S\u016bra<\/em>\u00a0106) together form a single\u00a0s\u016bra<\/em>. And he who asserts that we say that it is greater in extent than this is a liar. (\u1e62ad\u016bq,\u00a0I\u02bftiq\u0101d\u0101t al-Im\u0101miyya<\/em>).<\/p>\n

      Amongst later scholars who have commented on this work, the annotations of Shaykh al-Muf\u012bd (a student of \u1e62ad\u016bq\u2019s) are among the most prominent. In his commentary, Shaykh al-Muf\u012bd expressed disagreement with his teacher on a number of issues, criticizing him for relying on solitary reports.<\/p>\n

      \u1e62ad\u016bq\u2019s \u0100m\u0101l\u012b<\/h4>\n

      The above treatise was written by Shaykh al-\u1e62ad\u016bq himself. However, this one is a transcription of his lecture by a group who attended it on Friday 12th<\/sup>\u00a0Sha\u2018ban 368\/979, and requested that he explain the basic principles of Sh\u012b\u02bfism to them. He began by defining the principles of the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>:<\/p>\n

        \n
      1. \u2018The principles of the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em> are: to acknowledge that there is no God but Him, to avoid approaching Him through anthropomorphism, and to exalt Him from whatever attribution and qualities which do not befit Him; to testify to the legitimacy and rightfulness of God\u2019s prophets, messengers, proofs on the earth, the angles, and scriptures. Moreover, to believe that Mu\u1e25ammad is the foremost of the Prophets, he is higher than all the angels and that he is the Seal of the Prophets, and that there will be no prophet after him. (\u1e62ad\u016bq,\u00a0Am\u0101l\u012b<\/em>, 509 \u2013 Session 93)<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

        Murta\u1e0d\u0101\u2019s Jam\u0101l al-\u02bfIlm wa al-\u02bfAmal<\/h4>\n

        As we mentioned previously, in the centuries following the advent of Islam, Sh\u012b\u02bfa scholars followed the example of God\u2019s authorities and began to write short treatises on the principles and doctrines of the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>. We have already described two such treatises by \u1e62ad\u016bq, now we refer to one written by Shar\u012bf al-Murta\u1e0d\u0101 (d. 436\/1045). In it, he says:<\/p>\n

          \n
        1. \u2018All the bodies which are originated and preceded by non-existence, must naturally have a creator, since every new phenomenon is in need of a creator, like every artifice or written word\u2026\u2019<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

          This treatise of Shar\u012bf Murta\u1e0d\u0101 discusses the doctrines of the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0in more detail than that of \u1e62ad\u016bq\u2019s. This treatise also proposes a theory regarding the inimitability of the Qur\u2019an, known as \u2018\u1e62arfah<\/em>\u2019 (the idea that the Qur\u2019an was inimitable because God intervened to prevent anyone from imitating it), which later scholars did not approve of.<\/p>\n

          \u1e6car\u0101blus\u012b\u2019s Bay\u0101n \u02bfan Jumal I\u02bftiq\u0101d Ahl al-\u012am\u0101n<\/h4>\n

          This work was written by Ab\u016b al-Fat\u1e25 Kar\u0101jak\u012b al-\u1e6car\u0101blus\u012b (d. 449\/1057) following the model of his teacher, Shar\u012bf al-Murta\u1e0d\u0101. He begins his book saying:<\/p>\n

          \u2018O, my brother! God may bestow on you His Grace and may help you with His blessings. You entreated me to compose a concise treatise on the basic doctrines of the Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0so that it may act as guidance for others and that you yourself may commit it to your memory and also give it to the followers of the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>. I shall expound the basic tenets of Sh\u012b\u02bfism in brief, without dealing with their reasons and justifications.\u2019<\/p>\n

          Ab\u016b al-Fat\u1e25 begins with Divine Unity (taw\u1e25\u012bd<\/em>), and then moves to prophethood (nubuwwah<\/em>), both in the general and special sense, the Imamate and Caliphate, until he reaches the doctrine of the Twelfth Imam. Finally, he ends the treatise by discussing the issues of repentance (tawba<\/em>) and the Resurrection and then discussing some doctrines of the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>\u00a0(Kanz al-Fu\u02be\u0101d<\/em>, 240\u2013252).<\/p>\n

          \u1e6c\u016bs\u012b\u2019s al-\u02bfAq\u0101\u02beid al-Ja\u02bffariyya<\/h4>\n

          Shaykh al-\u1e6c\u016bs\u012b (d. 460\/1067) followed the approach of his forebears and wrote a treatise on the doctrines of the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>, in which he summarized the whole idea of the book into five topics. This treatise has been published in Q\u0101\u1e0d\u012b b. al-Barr\u0101j\u2019s\u00a0Jawahir al-Fiqh<\/em>\u00a0and also in \u1e6c\u016bs\u012b\u2019s other work,\u00a0al-Ras\u0101\u02beil Al-\u02bf\u0100shr<\/em>.<\/p>\n

          Analysis<\/h4>\n

          The discussion of these treatises sheds light on three issues:<\/p>\n

          Firstly, the content of these treatises indicates that the Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0drew all of its laws and principles from the Qur\u2019an,\u00a0Sunna<\/em>, and the Infallible Imams (a.s). Therefore, all of its principles are clear.<\/p>\n

          Secondly, even though in the treatises there are certain topics about which there are disagreements, the positions expressed on most of the major topics like God, His attributes and acts, prophethood and Imamate enjoy unanimity among the scholars of the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>.<\/p>\n

          Thirdly, a deeper look upon the contents of these treatises shows that although the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0disagreed with other Islamic sects on issues such as the Imamate and Caliphate, in many other areas there was broad agreement amongst the Muslims. This unanimity is reason enough to either overlook the differences or to peacefully discuss them.<\/p>\n

          Comparing the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0to the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em><\/h2>\n

          The two most well-known theological sects within Sunnism are the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em>. However, traditionalists (alh al-\u1e25\u0101d\u012bth<\/em>) and the\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em>\u00a0do not consider the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>\u00a0within the fold of Sunnism. However, insofar as the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>\u00a0do not believe in the divine selection of the Imam, we regard this school as nominally Sunn\u012b.<\/p>\n

          The\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>\u00a0as a theological school was established in 105\/723 by W\u0101\u1e63il b. \u02bfAt\u0101. He had previously been a follower of the school of \u1e24asan al-Ba\u1e63r\u012b, but he broke away and began attracting followers of his own. W\u0101\u1e63il\u2019s followers, due to their remarkable efforts against foreign heretical doctrines, began to attract attention. During the reign of the Abbasid Caliph, Mutawakkil (d. 240\/861), the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em> lost its favored position. The last prominent and distinguished figure of this school was Shaykh Ma\u1e25m\u016bd Zamaskhar\u012b (d. 538\/1144) whose\u00a0Tafs\u012br al-Kashsh\u0101f<\/em>\u00a0revived interest in their doctrines.<\/p>\n

          After the death of its main figures, the teachings of the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>\u00a0were preserved in the\u00a0Zayd\u012b\u00a0<\/em>school of Sh\u012b\u02bfism.\u00a0<\/em>The\u00a0Zaydiyya<\/em>\u00a0of Yemen and other regions adopted the principles of this school, aside from its rejection of \u02bfAl\u012b\u2019s successorship to the Prophet. As well as the\u00a0Zaydiyya<\/em>, the\u00a0M\u0101tur\u012bdiyya\u00a0<\/em>in the East adopted many Mu\u02bftazilite doctrines. The\u00a0M\u0101tur\u012bdiyya<\/em>\u00a0were intellectually closer to the rationalists than the traditionalists. However, from another angle, the\u00a0M\u0101tur\u012bdiyya<\/em>\u00a0and the\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em>\u00a0both belonged to Sunn\u012bsm while being opposed to the traditionalist theologians.<\/p>\n

          Some of the doctrines of\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>, especially the impossibility of visibly seeing God in the Hereafter, have survived in the\u00a0Ib\u0101\u1e0diyya<\/em>\u00a0sect. (For more on them, see the 3rd vol. of this series) Having briefly outlined the key differences between the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>, we shall leave its full discussion for the future.<\/p>\n

          Intercession<\/h4>\n

          Islamic scholars unanimously believe that\u00a0shaf\u0101\u02bfa\u00a0<\/em>(intercession) is an authentic teaching of Islam and that a sinner will be spared punishment due to the successful intercession of an intercessor. From this respect, intercession is only for those who have committed major sins; the Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em>\u00a0agree on this point. However, the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>\u00a0school holds that intercession is also available for the righteous, in the sense of elevating them to higher statuses in the Hereafter.<\/p>\n

          Punishment of a major sinner<\/h4>\n

          According to the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em>, a person whose faith and belief in God is theoretically sound but commits a major sin out of his own desire is still a believer, but also a sinner (f\u0101siq<\/em>). From the point of view of the\u00a0Khaw\u0101rij<\/em>, he has become an unbeliever, while according to the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>, he is neither a disbeliever nor a believer, but in an intermediate position.<\/p>\n

          Heaven and Hell<\/h4>\n

          The\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em>\u00a0believe that Heaven and Hell have been created and exist now and that God is aware of their condition. However, the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>\u00a0believe that they are not yet created.<\/p>\n

          Enjoining good and forbidding evil<\/h4>\n

          The majority of the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0and all the\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em>\u00a0believe that enjoining good and forbidding evil is a religious rather than a rational obligation; if no proof in justification of this principle has been explicitly provided, that is only because it is not necessary to do so. This is because some of the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0and a great number of the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>\u00a0believe that enjoining good and forbidding evil is a rational duty, and it is our faculty of reason which urges us to it.<\/p>\n

          How good deeds are invalidated by bad ones<\/h4>\n

          The\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em>\u00a0believe that whatever a person does has its own value independent of other actions; therefore evil deeds cannot invalidate good ones and render them worthless. In other words, good deeds are only eliminated if the committed sin is polytheism (shirk<\/em>) or disbelief (kufr<\/em>).<\/em>\u00a0In this case, all the previous good deeds to turn to nothing. However, for the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>\u00a0the sphere of invalidation (i\u1e25b\u0101\u1e6d<\/em>) is wider. They believe that a person who has spent his or her whole life worshipping and obeying God, by virtue of a single lie could become like one who has not worshipped God at all, even for one moment.<\/p>\n

          The relationship between religion and reason<\/h4>\n

          The\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em> consider reason to be a tool to infer and extract secondary principles, without exaggerating its role or position. The\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>, on the other hand, use reason to reinterpret those external acts of the\u00a0Shar\u012b\u02bfa<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0Sunna<\/em>\u00a0which do not conform to their own principles, such as the notion of intercession, which they interpret as a means to elevation in the Hereafter.<\/p>\n

          Repentance<\/h4>\n

          The\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em>\u00a0hold that God\u2019s acceptance of repentance is a form of divine grace, as if it were not for God\u2019s kindness, there could be no forgiveness of sins. On the other hand, the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>\u00a0believe that the promise of forgiveness from one\u2019s sins is an essential rational precondition for repentance and turning away from sin.<\/p>\n

          The Prophets and Angels<\/h4>\n

          The\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0believe that the Prophets are superior to the angels but the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>\u00a0believe the contrary.<\/p>\n

          Determinism versus free will<\/h4>\n

          The\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em> maintains that the human being is not subject to predestination and that whatever he does is the result of his own free choice. However, this does not mean that man is completely autonomous or that his actions exist independently of God either. However, the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>\u00a0believe man is autonomous and his actions are independent.<\/p>\n

          Mankind\u2019s need for revelation<\/h4>\n

          The\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em> say that the human being, in order to fulfill their moral duties, is in need of divine guidance in the form of prophets, without whom he would go astray. On the other hand, the Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>\u00a0claim that human reason is capable of identifying a person\u2019s moral duties independent of external guidance.<\/p>\n

          These are the differences between the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>\u00a0schools; it is to be noted that many of the\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em>\u00a0agree with the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0on the aforementioned mentioned principles. Furthermore, insofar as these principles are mostly theological rather than doctrinal, it is not necessary for individual Muslims to affirm every last detail of them, and disagreements on these issues should not be a source of strife among the Muslims.<\/p>\n

          A comparison of the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0with\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em><\/h2>\n

          Ab\u016b al-\u1e24asan al-\u02bf\u0100sh\u2018ar\u012b (d. 324\/936) is the founder of the\u00a0Ash\u02bfar\u012b<\/em>\u00a0school. For many years, he subscribed to the doctrines of the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>\u00a0and was the pupil of one of the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>\u2019s greatest figures, Ab\u016b \u02bfAl\u012b al-Jub\u0101\u02be\u012b. Then, in 305\/917, he stood atop a pulpit, renounced his belief in the doctrines of the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila,<\/em>\u00a0and announced that he was turning to the school established by A\u1e25mad b. \u1e24anbal (Ibn al-Nad\u012bm,\u00a0Fihrist<\/em>, 271;\u00a0Waf\u0101y\u0101t al-A\u02bfy\u0101n<\/em>, 3\/285 ). Even though Ab\u016bl al-\u1e24asan declared himself as a convert to the doctrines of the traditionalists, he moderated many of their principles on the basis of reason. This was never accepted by the traditionalists and, as a result, the\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em>\u00a0appeared as a separate school, taking the middle path between the excessive rationalism of the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em> and the dogmatism of the traditionalists. However, in many cases, it is in total disagreement with the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>.<\/p>\n

          The points of disagreement between the\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0are as follows:<\/p>\n

          The relation of the Divine Attributes to the Divine Essence<\/h4>\n

          According to the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>, God\u2019s attributes of essence (\u1e63if\u0101t al-dh\u0101t<\/em>) like power, knowledge, and life are identical with His essence and not additional to it. In other words, the essence enjoys such a degree of perfection that it is knowledge, power, and life itself. The Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em> consider God\u2019s attributes of the essence to be added to His essence, but still coeternal with it. As a result, in addition to God\u2019s essence which is eternal, the\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em> posits seven other eternal entities.<\/p>\n

          The revealed attributes<\/h4>\n

          Revealed attributes (\u1e63if\u0101t khabariyya<\/em>) are those attributes which the Qur\u2019an and\u00a0Sunna<\/em> ascribe to God, which we could not otherwise know or rationally ascribe to Him ourselves, for example, God having a face or a hand.<\/p>\n

          The\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em> believe that the literal sense of these words must be distinguished from the sense in which God intends them. Therefore, for example, whenever the Qur\u2019an says: \u2018\u2026the Hand of All\u0101h is over their hands,\u2019 the literal sense of this is that God has a hand which is above their hands; however, further reflection suggests that the phrase is meant to signify that God\u2019s power is greater than theirs.<\/p>\n

          When it is said that the revealed attributes must be interpreted (ta\u2019wil<\/em>), this does not mean that the resultant interpretation is in conflict with the apparent one. In this method, the ultimate goal is to arrive at God\u2019s intended meaning through the act of interpretation.<\/p>\n

          Human agency and human deeds<\/h4>\n

          The\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em> holds that the human being is the real immediate cause of his acts; he is the one who eats, fasts and prays. However, whatever he does is accomplished with the help of the Divine Power. The Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em>, on the other hand, believe that God is the cause of the human being\u2019s acts, and man is where God\u2019s actions are projected. In other words, whenever man wills and intends to do something before his will turns into action, it is the Divine power that produces the action.<\/p>\n

          The above doctrine appears very close to determinism, so Ash\u02bfar\u012b, in order to escape this charge, added a new term that has produced much ambiguity. He claims: \u2018God is the cause and creator of man\u2019s actions and man only \u2018acquires\u2019 them. However, the meaning of \u2018acquisition\u2019 (kasb<\/em>), as opposed to the creation in human actions, is not clear. By the same token, Ash\u02bfar\u012b\u2019s doctrine of acquisition has been called one of the three unsolvable riddles of the world.<\/p>\n

           <\/p>\n

          The relationship between ability and action<\/h4>\n

          The human being\u2019s ability to act is sometimes concomitant to the act itself and sometimes precedes it. If the ability to act is by itself a sufficient cause for an action to occur, it must evidently be concomitant with the act, while if it refers to a contributing cause, then it precedes the action.<\/p>\n

          God is beyond human sight<\/h4>\n

          According to the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>, the Sacred Essence of God both in this world and in the Hereafter is beyond man\u2019s perception. Meanwhile, the\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em> believe that man would be capable of perceiving God\u2019s Essence in the Hereafter. For the Validity of their claim, they refer to a tradition cited in\u00a0\u1e62a\u1e25\u012b\u1e25 Bukh\u0101r\u012b<\/em>.<\/p>\n

          God\u2019s word is His action<\/h4>\n

          Speech (takallum<\/em>) is undeniably an attribute of God. For the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>, speaking is included with God\u2019s attribute of the Creator. They argue that since all the creatures, through their creation, are making manifest the Power and Beauty of their creator. As Imam \u02bfAl\u012b says in\u00a0Nahj al-Bal\u0101gha<\/em>: \u2018His speech is an act of His creation. (Sermon 186). But the\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em> considers speech to be one of God\u2019s attributes of essence rather than of action and justifies it by saying that He speaks to Himself.<\/p>\n

          Good and evil are rational<\/h4>\n

          The rationality of good and evil is amongst the most basic principles of the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>. It means that when you observe an action, irrespective of the doer, you understand that action to be innately good or evil. In other words, when a person witnesses an instance of justice and an instance of injustice, immediately he understands the goodness and rightness of the first and the immorality and incorrectness of the second. This kind of judgment and evaluation is not contextual or fluid. Our intellect tells us that we should respond to kindness with kindness and keep our promises because these are pleasant and beautiful acts. In its judgment, the intellect only considers the act and it pays no attention to the doer or external factors. The Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em>\u00a0do not believe in this principle; they believe that good and evil can only be known through revelation.<\/p>\n

          It should be reminded that the rejection of this principle makes all the other religious principles save the existence of the Creator, impossible to know.<\/p>\n

          In the above seven points, the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0disagree completely with the\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em>\u00a0and partially agree with the\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>. A detailed study of these points of conflict and accord demonstrates that Sh\u012b\u02bfism is an independent school, with its own individual doctrines and tenets.<\/p>\n

          Studying the works of theology written between the time of Fazl b. Shazan (d. 260\/874) and Shaykh al-\u1e6c\u016bs\u012b (460\/1068) reveals that the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0theologians have relied exclusively upon the Qur\u2019an,\u00a0Sunna<\/em>, and the traditions of\u00a0Household<\/em>\u00a0(a.s) in constructing their doctrines, and never drawn upon any other resources. The reader can find out this point him\/herself by studying the following books, which have been written during Shaykh al-\u1e6c\u016bs\u012b\u2019s lifetime or after his death:<\/p>\n

            \n
          1. Taqr\u012bb al-Ma\u02bf\u0101rif<\/em>\u00a0by Ab\u016b al-\u1e62ala\u1e25 al-\u1e24alab\u012b (d. 447\/1084)<\/li>\n
          2. al-Munqidh min al-Taql\u012bd\u00a0<\/em>by Sayyid al-D\u012bn al-\u1e24imsi (d. 600\/1204)<\/li>\n
          3. Taqr\u012bb al- Ma\u02bf\u0101rif<\/em>\u00a0by Ibn Maytham Al-Ba\u1e25r\u0101n\u012b (d. 589\/1193)<\/li>\n
          4. Many of \u02bfAll\u0101ma al-\u1e24ill\u012b\u2019s books on doctrines and theology are filled with argumentations derived from Qur\u2019anic verses, traditions, and rational discussions.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

            It is also worth noting that the following two books by Shar\u012bf al-Murta\u1e0d\u0101 mostly revolve around rational argumentations:<\/p>\n

              \n
            1. al-Sh\u0101f\u012b f\u012b al-Im\u0101ma<\/em>\u00a0(a critique of part of Q\u0101d\u012b \u02bfAbd al-Jabb\u0101r\u2019s work,\u00a0al-Mughn\u012b<\/em>)<\/li>\n
            2. al-Dhakh\u012bra<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

              The\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0have paid special attention to the study of theology, as is evident from the numerous books they have produced in a variety of languages and subjects.<\/p>\n

              Fortunately, most of the theologians and theological writings of the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em> have been cataloged and published in a five-volume set by the Imam al-\u1e62\u0101diq Institute, Qom.<\/p>\n

              In spite of the differences between the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>,\u00a0Mu\u02bftazila<\/em>, and\u00a0Ash\u0101\u02bfira<\/em>, there is a vast common ground between them that paves the way for the Muslims to live in unity and to listen to the Qur\u2019an\u2019s call for unity: \u2018The believers are indeed brothers\u2026\u2019 (Q49:10).<\/p>\n

              Since some of the foundational principles as to which the\u00a0Im\u0101miyya<\/em>\u00a0disagrees with others are not yet fully clarified, we will discuss them in detail now in order to remove any ambiguities or misconceptions that others might have about them.<\/p>\n

               <\/p>\n

              [1]\u00a0\u2018Falsehood cannot approach it, from before it nor from behind it, a [gradually] sent down [revelation] from One all-wise, all-laudable.\u2019 (Q41:42)<\/p>\n

              [2]\u00a0Ib\u1e6d\u0101l\u00a0means rejecting the actuality of God\u2019s attributes of the essence and of action.\u00a0Tashb\u012bh\u00a0means taking the meanings of the attributes literally, for example, to say that God has real hands, eyes or a face.<\/p>\n

              Shia Islam (10): The Sh\u012b\u02bfa under Umayyad and Abbasid Rule<\/a><\/p><\/blockquote>\n