<\/p>\n
Shia Islam: Sh\u012b\u02bfa contributions to Islamic civilization \/ 33 \u2013 d<\/p>\n
Study of narrators (\u02bfIlm al-Rij\u0101l)
\n\u02bfIlm al-rij\u0101l is a branch of learning that deals with the biographies of the narrators of \u1e25ad\u012bth, particularly with regards to their reliability as sources. A working knowledge of rij\u0101l is generally expected from every jurist as if he wants to give legal edicts on the basis of a tradition he must first determine its authenticity and reliability. Therefore, Sh\u012b\u02bfa Jurists endeavored to expand this knowledge. Some of the founders of this science are as follows:<\/p>\n
\u02bfAbd All\u0101h b. Jabala Kin\u0101n\u012b (d. 219 AH): Naj\u0101sh\u012b says that the family of Jabala is well-known in Kufa and he is a reliable and famous jurist. He has a book entitled al-Rij\u0101l (Naj\u0101sh\u012b, no. 561).
\n\u02bfAl\u012b b. \u1e24asan b. Fa\u1e0d\u1e0d\u0101l: He is a famous jurist from Kufa, a reliable narrator and knowledgable in the science of \u1e25ad\u012bth. He is a companion of the Imams al-H\u0101d\u012b and al-\u02bfAskar\u012b and the author of several books. One of his books is al-Rij\u0101l. (Ibid., 674)
\nWhenever historians mention Ibn Fa\u1e0d\u1e0d\u0101l the junior, they mean \u02bfAl\u012b b. \u1e24asan and by Ibn Fa\u1e0d\u1e0d\u0101l the senior, they mean his father \u1e24asan b. Fa\u1e0d\u1e0d\u0101l.<\/p>\n
\u1e24asan b. Ma\u1e25b\u016bb al-Sarr\u0101d (150-224) was a master of \u1e25ad\u012bth and narrated from sixty other masters of \u1e25ad\u012bth. He was a companion of Imam al-S\u0101diq and has two books on rij\u0101l, namely Ma\u02bfrifat Ruw\u0101t al-Akhb\u0101r and al-Mashyakha.
\nMu\u1e25ammad b. \u02bfUmar b. \u02bfAbd al-\u02bfAz\u012bz al-Kashsh\u012b: He was a famous biographer, trined in the school al-\u02bfAyy\u0101sh\u012b. He has a book entitled Ma\u02bfrifat al-Rij\u0101l, which discusses the identity of the narrators who have narrated \u1e25ad\u012bth from the Imams. The original book is no longer extant but al-\u1e6c\u016bs\u012b has condensed it into his Ikhtiy\u0101r Ma\u02bfrifat al-Rij\u0101l. (Ibid., no. 1018)
\nA\u1e25mad b. \u02bfAl\u012b al-Naj\u0101sh\u012b (372-450): He is considered a prominent Sh\u012b\u02bfa scholar in the science of rij\u0101l and in this science is second to none. His book of Rij\u0101l is actually a comprehensive bibliography of Sh\u012b\u02bfa books and is at the same time one of the most seminal records of Sh\u012b\u02bfa scholars. The book is recently published by the Imam S\u0101diq Institute in two elegant volumes.
\nShaykh al-\u1e6c\u016bs\u012b (385-460): His intellectual stature is so great that it cannot be described in this short space. He was an authority in numerous Islamic sciences and contributed to almost every field of learning. His two biographical books, al-Rij\u0101l and al-Fihrist, are among the most relied-upon documents for identifying narrators of \u1e25ad\u012bth, each of which written in a particular way: In his Rij\u0101l, \u1e6c\u016bs\u012b lists the narrators of \u1e25ad\u012bth from the time of the Prophet until after the Lesser Occultation in alphabetical order in 14 generations.
\nOn the other hand, his Fihrist is practically a bibliography of Islamic sciences arranged according to the authors and in many cases the author presents his evidence on a given title helping us to determine the reliability of the narrtors and whether or not to act according to that saying.<\/p>\n
These are just some of the books written on rij\u0101l. It is noteworthy that those who are against the Household of the Prophet but cannot direct their enmity towards them on them instead direct it to the followers of the Prophet\u2019s Household. In doing so, they constanly resort to lies and false-accusations; Ibn Taymiyyah is the first who accused Sh\u012b\u02bfa of having few works on \u1e25ad\u012bth and rij\u0101l. Following him, another writer by the name of Mar\u02bfash\u012b essentially denied the existence of the sciences of \u1e25ad\u012bth and rij\u0101l in the Sh\u012b\u02bfa tradition. Recently, \u02bfAbd al-Ra\u1e25m\u0101n S\u0101li\u1e25\u012b, in the preface to a book entitled Mas\u0101dir al-Talaqq\u012b, has asserted that the Sh\u012b\u02bfa in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries have fabricated the collections of their traditions. It sounds as though Sh\u012b\u02bfa were an obscure community who could have fabricated thousands of a\u1e25ad\u012bth without anyone noticing!<\/p>\n
Ayatull\u0101h Ja\u02bffar Sub\u1e25\u0101n\u012b responded to this by writing a letter to the author saying that we have access to books written in the Second and Third Centuries. Is it really possible to say that these books were fabricated in the following centuries? Furthermore, in order to remove doubt and to prevent the repetition of this accusation he wrote a book entitled Dawr al-Sh\u012b\u02bfa f\u012b al-\u1e24ad\u012bth Nasha\u02betan wa Tatawwuran and sent it with a letter through the Ambassador of Iran in Riyadh to \u02bfAbd al-Ra\u1e25m\u0101n \u1e62\u0101li\u1e25\u012b. From this experience we have learnt that everything comes to an end except the fabrication of lies about Sh\u012b\u02bfa and everything has a cause behind it except for people\u2019s enmity towards the Sh\u012b\u02bfa!<\/p>\n
The Rational Sciences
\nOne of the highest goals of Islam is to free people\u2019s minds from baseless ideas and to encourage them to use their reason. This is why the word \u02bfaql (reason) and its derivatives appears forty-seven times in the Qur\u02be\u0101n, the word tafakkur (to think) eighteen times, the word lubb (intellect) sixteen, and the word tadabbur (contemplation) four. Islam invites man to study the created world and, when reasoning for the existence of God, provides the best argument with these short sentences:<\/p>\n
\u2018Were they created from nothing? Or are they [their own] creators? Did they create the heavens and the earth? Rather they have no certainty!\u2019(Q52:35-36)<\/p>\n
Although the approach of Islam is to invite people to rational thinking, unfortunately a group of Muslims, instead of contemplating about the great knowledge inherent in the Qur\u2019an and \u1e25ad\u012bth, allowed themselves to be deceived by Judeo-Christian interpolations and followed the method of anthropomorphism when it came to God and thus deprived themselves of rational thinking. Shahrist\u0101n\u012b says that some of these shallow people believe God to possess all human body parts except the beard and the private parts, saying: \u2018Please don\u2019t ask me about the beard and the private parts \u2013 ask about other things!\u2019 (al-Milal wa al-Ni\u1e25al, 1\/105)<\/p>\n
The influx of Judeo-Christian ideas led a great number of narrators in the Second and Third Centuries to resort to anthropomorphism in their ideas about God. Others who were unwilling to follow this approach found an alternative by claiming that man cannot comprehend metaphysical issues.<\/p>\n
However, this is clearly not true. We can discuss metaphysical realities and access their realm. Of course, this is not done intuitevely but rationally. It is possible via two approaches:<\/p>\n
First, a deep and careful investigation of nature, whose secrets and laws lead us to the glory and perfection of the Creator.<\/p>\n
Syllogistic reasoning, that is when the minor and major premises are absolute, they will inevitably lead us to absolute conclusions. This is the method \u02bfAl\u012b and other the Imams adopted. To illustrate this point, we content ourselves with an example:<\/p>\n
Someone asked Imam \u02bfAl\u012b, \u2018Can God put the whole world into an egg, without making the world smaller or making the egg larger?\u2019 the Imam answered: \u2018Weakness or inability are not characteristics which can be attributed to God, but what you have asked is something which is not possible to come into existence.\u2019<\/p>\n
Pondering over the above question and answer help us to see the point that the the Imam has reasoned by using the proper syllogism for this question; namely the principle of non-contradiction means that the container must always be larger than what it contains. If the whole world can be put in an egg without the world becoming smaller or the egg bigger, we will conclude that the contents are larger than the container. This is impossible because the first premise (\u2018a continer must always be larger than its contents\u2019) is absolute, and so surely its opposite (\u2018the contents can be larger than the container\u2019) is definitely nullified.<\/p>\n
The sermons of \u02bfAl\u012b in The Nahj al-Bal\u0101gha serve as the foundation for Sh\u012b\u02bfa theology and philosophy. These sermons have shaped Sh\u012b\u02bfa ideas over many centuries. Thus, in the school of The Prophet\u2019s Family, many eminent theologians were trained. Some of these are as follows:<\/p>\n
Sh\u012b\u02bfa Theologians in the Second Century
\nZurara b. A\u02bfyan: An outstanding scholar of his time, an expert theologian and a great poet. God blessed him with a number of virtues: knowledge, faith and truthfulness in speech. Shaykh al-\u1e62ad\u016bq says he has seen a book by him entitled al-Isti\u1e6d\u0101\u02bfa wa al- Jabr. (Naj\u0101sh\u012b, 397; \u1e6c\u016bs\u012b, Fihrist, 314; Miz\u0101n al-I\u02bftid\u0101l, 2\/2853) Ibn al-Nad\u012bm says that he was one of the greatest Sh\u012b\u02bfa scholars in Islamic jurisprudence, science of \u1e25ad\u012bth, and theology. (Fihrist, 323)
\nMu\u1e25ammad b. \u02bfAl\u012b b. Nu\u2019man: He was a distinguished theologian whose opponents, because of his fierce debates, called him Shay\u1e6d\u0101n al-\u1e6c\u0101q (\u2018the Unique Devil\u2019). He was matchless theology and eloquence. Naj\u0101sh\u012b says that he had a book entitled Af\u02bfal wa la Taf\u02bfal that he saw in the possession of A\u1e25mad b. \u1e24usayn b. \u02bfAbd All\u0101h al-Gha\u1e0d\u0101\u02beir\u012b, which was a substantial work. He has another book entitled al-I\u1e25tij\u0101j on the proofs for the Imamate of \u02bfAl\u012b, and a third one about his debates with Ab\u016b \u1e24an\u012bfa and the Murji\u02bea. The year of his death is unknown but as Imam al-S\u0101diq passed away in 148 AH and Ab\u016b \u1e24an\u012bfa died in 150 AH, we can conclude that he lived in the same era as they did. Ibn al-Nad\u012bm is familiar with him and says he was an expert theologian and has the following books to his name: Kit\u0101b al-Im\u0101ma, Kit\u0101b al-Ma\u02bfrifa, Kit\u0101b al-Radd \u02bfal\u0101 al-Mu\u02bftazila f\u012b Im\u0101mat al-Maf\u1e0d\u016bl, Kit\u0101b f\u012b Amr \u1e6cal\u1e25a wa al-Zubayr wa \u02bf\u0100\u02beisha. (Ibn al-Nad\u012bm, Fihrist, p. 257; \u1e6c\u016bs\u012b, Fihrist, 258, 264)
\nHish\u0101m b. \u1e24akam: Ibn al-Nad\u012bm says that he was an outstanding Sh\u012b\u02bfa theologian. He is the one Imam al-S\u0101diq prayed for and said to him the very sentence that The Messenger of God said about \u1e24asan b. Th\u0101bit: \u2018May the Holy Spirit help you as long as you support us with your tongue.\u2019 He was the first to analyze the issue of the Imamate in theology and paved the way for rationalization. He was an ingenious and witty debator.
\nShahrast\u0101n\u012b says: \u2018 Hish\u0101m b. \u1e24akam was an adept scholar in theology and his debates against the Mu\u02bftazila are not to be overlooked. (al-Milal wa al-Ni\u1e25al, 1\/185)<\/p>\n
Naj\u0101sh\u012b says that in his last days Hish\u0101m moved from Kufa to Baghdad and died in 199 AH then he mentions the titles of his books and counts up to 30 titles, most of them in theology. (Naj\u0101sh\u012b, no. 1165)<\/p>\n
A\u1e25mad Am\u012bn says that Hish\u0101m was one of the prominent Sh\u012b\u02bfa theologians, was vigorous in debates and had some debates with the Mu\u02bftazila. Numerous debates of his are quoted in literature books and these demonstrate his presence of mind when answering questions.<\/p>\n
In his youth, Hish\u0101m b. \u1e24akam followed Ab\u016b Sh\u0101kir al-Days\u0101n\u012b who held mistaken ideas in religion. Then he left him and joined Jahm b. \u1e62afw\u0101n, who was killed in Tirmidh in 128 AH. Then fate led him to Imam al-S\u0101diq and he embraced Imam\u012b doctrines and studied the teachings of the Prophet\u2019s Household. If false ideas are quoted from Hish\u0101m, they have to do with his youth when he was associating with Ab\u016b Sh\u0101kir and Jahm b. \u1e62afw\u0101n. However, after joining Imam al-S\u0101diq his ideas changed and he became a stalwart defender of the latter\u2019s teachings. The late Shaykh \u02bfAbd All\u0101h Ni\u02bfma, one of Lebanon\u2019s preeminent scholars, has written a book on the life of Hish\u0101m b. \u1e24akam and saved us from further elaborations.<\/p>\n
Nowadays there are people in our community who, due to a number of misconceptions, prevent people from rational, philosophical and even theological reasoning and suppose that the right path is to consult verses and traditions and not to make use of rational sciences. This is wrong from several points of view. We content ourselves to quote a \u1e25ad\u012bth to make it clear that our infallible leaders trained theologians in their circles. Kulayni narrates that a man came from Syria to see Imam al-S\u0101diq and debate with his students. The Imam orderd Y\u016bnis b. Ya\u02bfq\u016bb to see if any of his distinguished students in theology were nearby. Y\u016bnis said, \u2018I went out and visited their homes, first I brought Zur\u0101ra who was an expert in theology, then I fetched Mu\u02bemin al-\u1e6c\u0101q who also had a comprehensive knowledge of this science, then Hish\u0101m b. \u1e24akam, then Qays b. M\u0101\u1e63ir, who I personally regarded as the most learned of Imam al-S\u0101diq\u2019s Companions in theology who had studied under \u02bfAl\u012b b. \u1e24usayn. I brought them all to the presence of the Imam. (K\u0101f\u012b, 1\/171; Naj\u0101sh\u012b, no. 794)<\/p>\n
Qays al-M\u0101\u1e63ir: A great scholar of theology whose principles he learned from Imam \u02bfAl\u012b b. al-\u1e24usayn. We have already quoted what Y\u016bnis b. Ya\u02bfq\u016bb said about him.
\n\u02bf\u012as\u0101 b. Raw\u1e0da: He was Man\u1e63\u016br\u2019s chamberlain, an expert theologian, and an eloquent speaker. A\u1e25mad b. Ab\u012b \u1e6c\u0101hir in his book, Baghd\u0101d, says that he had seen a book of his on the Imamate. Naj\u0101sh\u012b says that some of our scholars have also seen that book and I have read: \u2018when Man\u1e63\u016br arrived in Kufa, he secretly attended his classes as he was talking about the Imamate and he approved of his ideas. The year of his death is unknown, however, Man\u1e63\u016br passed away in 158 AH, so he must certainly belong to the theologians of the second century.
\nAb\u016b M\u0101lik \u1e0ca\u1e25\u1e25\u0101k al-\u1e24a\u1e0dram\u012b: He was from Kufa and lived during the time of Imam al-S\u0101diq. Some say that he has narrated from that the Imam, however it is certain that he has at the very least narrated from Imam M\u016bs\u0101 al-K\u0101\u1e93im. Naj\u0101sh\u012b says: \u2018he was a theologian and a reliable narrator of traditions. He has a book on taw\u1e25\u012bd that \u02bfAl\u012b b. \u1e24asan \u1e6ca\u1e6dar\u012b narrates from.\u2019 For that reason, he belongs to the theologians of the second century. (Naj\u0101sh\u012b, no. 544) Ibn al-Nad\u012bm regards him as a Sh\u012b\u02bfa theologian and says: \u2018he debated in one meeting with Ab\u016b \u02bfAl\u012b Jubb\u0101\u02be\u012b about the Imamate and proved his ideas in support of the Imamate in presence of Ab\u016b Mu\u1e25ammad Q\u0101sim b. Mu\u1e25ammad al-K\u016bf\u012b. He has a book on the Imamate and another unfinished book in which he responds to Ab\u016b \u02bfAl\u012b Jubb\u0101\u02be\u012b\u2019s own book on the Imamate, refuting his ideas on that issue. (Fihrist, 266)
\n\u02bfAl\u012b b. \u1e24asan b. Mu\u1e25ammad al-\u1e6c\u0101\u02be\u012b, popularly known as \u1e6c\u0101\u1e6dar\u012b: He is a reliable jurist, scholar of \u1e25ad\u012bth, and author of books about taw\u1e25\u012bd, Imamate, human nature (fi\u1e6dra), knowledge and guardianship (wil\u0101ya). (Naj\u0101sh\u012b, no. 655) Ibn al-Nad\u012bm considers him An Im\u0101m\u012b theologian and says, \u2018T\u0101\u1e6dar\u012b is a Sh\u012b\u02bfa theologian. He has a book about the Imamate that is very fine.\u2019 As one of the companions of Imam al-K\u0101\u1e93im, he certainly belongs to the theologians of the second century.
\n\u1e24asan b. \u02bfAl\u012b b. Yaqtin b. M\u016bs\u0101: He is a theologian and a jurist who has narrated traditions from the two Imams al-K\u0101\u1e93im and al-Ri\u1e0d\u0101. He has a book entitled Mas\u0101\u02beil Ab\u012b al-\u1e24asan M\u016bs\u0101. (Ibid., no. 9)
\nSince Imam al-K\u0101\u1e93im passed away in the year 183 AH and Imam al-Ri\u1e0d\u0101 in the year 203 AH, he certainly belongs to the theologians of the second and early third century. Even Shaykh in his Rij\u0101l has counted him among the companions of Imam al-Ri\u1e0d\u0101. (Rij\u0101l, no. 7)<\/p>\n
Once he asked the eighth the Imam (A.S), \u2018I cannot enjoy your presence all the time, from whom can I learn my creed?\u2019 \u2018From Y\u016bnus b. \u02bfAbd al-Ra\u1e25m\u0101n,\u2019said the Imam. (Naj\u0101sh\u012b, no. 1209)<\/p>\n
H\u0101d\u012bd b. Hak\u012bm, known as Ab\u016b \u02bfAl\u012b al-Azad\u012b al-Mad\u0101\u02bein\u012b: He is a reliable narrator and a well-known theologian. He has narrated traditions from Imams al-S\u0101diq and al-K\u0101\u1e93im, and Mu\u1e25ammad b. Kh\u0101lid has narrated from him. (Ibid., no. 383; Kha\u1e6d\u012bb has mentioned him in T\u0101r\u012bkh Baghd\u0101d, no. 4377) Therefore he belongs to the theologians of the second century.
\nFa\u1e0d\u1e0d\u0101l b. \u1e24asan b. Fa\u1e0d\u1e0d\u0101l: He was a theologian of Imam al-S\u0101diq\u2019s time. \u1e6cabars\u012b has quoted his debate with Ab\u016b \u1e24an\u012bfa in his book al-I\u1e25tij\u0101j.
\nThe theologians we have mentioned here are of the time of Imam al-S\u0101diq and al-K\u0101\u1e93im. These figures had debates with their opponents which are recorded in history books. Other names that belong to this list are \u1e24umr\u0101n b. A\u02bfy\u0101n al-Shayb\u0101n\u012b, Hish\u0101m b. S\u0101lim al-Jawlaq\u012b, Sayyid \u1e24imyar\u012b and Kumayt al-Asad\u012b. (A\u02bfy\u0101n al-Sh\u012b\u02bfa.,Vol.1, pp. 134-35)<\/p>\n
Sh\u012b\u02bfa theologians of the Third Century
\nIn the Third Century, ingenious theologians who were mostly the students of Imam al-H\u0101d\u012b and al-\u02bfAskar\u012b appeared amongst the Sh\u012b\u02bfa. Now we shall enumerate some of these:<\/p>\n
al-Fa\u1e0dl b. Sh\u0101dh\u0101n: He is Ab\u016bMu\u1e25ammad al-Fa\u1e0dl b. Sh\u0101dh\u0101n b. Khal\u012bl al-Azad\u012b al-N\u012bsh\u0101b\u016br\u012b. His father was among the companions of Y\u016bnis b. \u02bfAbd al-Ra\u1e25m\u0101n. He himself has narrated from Imam al-Jaw\u0101d. It is believed that he has even narrated some \u1e25ad\u012bth from Imam al-Ri\u1e0d\u0101.
\nFa\u1e0dl b. Sh\u0101dh\u0101n was an eminent Islamic jurist and theologian of his time whose greatness is beyond description. Ganj\u012b Sh\u0101fi\u02bf\u012b says that he wrote as many as one hundred and eighty books. \u1e6c\u016bs\u012b in his Rij\u0101l considers him among the Companions of Imam al-H\u0101d\u012b and al-\u02bfAskar\u012b and believes he died in 260 AH. Naj\u0101sh\u012b, \u1e6c\u016bs\u012b and Kashsh\u012b have given us some titles of these books. (see Naj\u0101sh\u012b, no. 838 ; \u1e6c\u016bs\u012b, Rij\u0101l, no. 1 & 2 ; and Kashsh\u012b, Rij\u0101l, no. 416).<\/p>\n
Merely the titles that Naj\u0101sh\u012b names reveal that Fa\u1e0dl b. Sh\u0101dh\u0101n had been actively involved in debates defending Shi\u2019ism and Islam, therefore the majority of his books consist of rebuttals.<\/p>\n
\u1e24akam b. Hish\u0101m b. \u1e24akam: He was the son of famous Hish\u0101m mentioned above, a resident of Basra, and an expert in theology. Naj\u0101sh\u012b says that some of our scholars have seen his book on the Imamate. (Naj\u0101sh\u012b, no. 349) As his father died in the year 199 AH or 200 AH, he is to belong to the theologians of the early Third Century.
\nD\u0101w\u016bd b. Asad b. A\u02bffar, popularly known as Ab\u016b al-A\u1e25wa\u1e63 al-Mi\u1e63r\u012b, was a great teacher, jurist, theologian and a reliable narrator. His father was among the narrators of \u1e25ad\u012bth and a reliable narrator himself. D\u0101w\u016bd b. Asad compiled several books, one of which is on the Imamate. (Ibid., no. 412) Shaykh al-\u1e6c\u016bs\u012b mentions in the Fihrist that he is of the Im\u0101miyya theologians and \u1e24asan b. M\u016bs\u0101 al-Nawbakht\u012b has attended his discussions and studied under him. As \u1e24asan b. M\u016bs\u0101 al-Nawbakht\u012b is a contemporary of Jubb\u0101\u02be\u012b (d. 303 AH), we may conclude that D\u0101w\u016bdb. Aasd belongs to the theologians of the Third Century.
\nMu\u1e25ammad b. \u02bfAbd All\u0101h b. Mumallik al-I\u1e63fah\u0101n\u012b: He was originally from Jurjan but settled in Isfahan. He was a great scholar of his day; he initially followed the Mu\u02bftazila for a while before coming to Shi\u2019ism under the guidance of the Sh\u012b\u02bfa scholar, \u02bfAbd al-Ra\u1e25m\u0101n b. Ahmad Jabrawayh. He has several books in theology such as al-Jami\u02bf f\u012b S\u0101\u02beir Abw\u0101b al-Kal\u0101m, al-Mas\u0101\u02beil wa Jaw\u0101b\u0101t f\u012b al-Im\u0101ma, Mawal\u012bd al-A\u02beimma and records of his debates with Ab\u016b \u02bfAl\u012b Jubb\u0101\u02be\u012b. (Naj\u0101sh\u012b, no. 1034)
\nTh\u0101bit b. Mu\u1e25ammad, known as Ab\u016bMu\u1e25ammad al-\u02bfAskar\u012b: He was a colleague of Ab\u016b \u02bf\u012as\u0101 Warr\u0101q, an expert theologian, and a companion of Imam al-H\u0101d\u012b. He had a vast knowledge of \u1e25ad\u012bth and Jurisprudence. Among his theological works we can name Naq\u1e0d al-\u02bfUthm\u0101niyyah and Dal\u0101\u02beil al-\u0100\u02beimma. Since Ab\u016b \u02bf\u012as\u0101 passed away in 247 AH Th\u0101bit b. Mu\u1e25ammad must belong to the theologians of the Third Century.
\nIsm\u0101\u02bf\u012bl b. Mu\u1e25ammad b. Ism\u0101\u02bf\u012bl b. Hil\u0101l al-Makhz\u016bm\u012b: A scholar of the Im\u0101miyya, Ay\u016bb b. N\u016b\u1e25, \u1e24asan b. Mu\u02bf\u0101wiya, Mu\u1e25ammad b. \u1e24usayn and \u02bfAl\u012b b. \u1e24asan b. Fa\u1e0d\u1e0d\u0101l narrated traditions from him. He has a book on taw\u1e25\u012bd, another on knowledge and a third one on the Imamate. As his student, \u1e24asan b. \u02bfAl\u012b b. Fa\u1e0d\u1e0d\u0101l was a companion of Imam al-H\u0101d\u012b and al-\u02bfAskar\u012b, he too must belong to the theologians of the Third Century.
\nMu\u1e25ammad b. Har\u016bn: Popularly known as Ab\u016b \u02bfIs\u0101 Warr\u0101q, he is the author of books such as al-Im\u0101ma, al-Saq\u012bfa, Ikhtil\u0101f al-Sh\u012b\u02bfa and al-Maq\u0101l\u0101t. Ibn \u1e24ajar reports that he wrote works based on Mu\u02bftazil\u012b doctrines but Mas\u02bf\u016bd\u012b says that he has written some fine books on the Imamate and other issues. He passed away in 247 AH. (Naj\u0101sh\u012b, no. 1017; Lis\u0101n al-M\u012bz\u0101n vol. 5, no. 1360; Raw\u0101sh\u012bh Sam\u0101wiyya, p. 55) Ibn \u1e24ajar includes him among the Mu\u02bftazila because he often confuses them with Twelvers and has included some Twelver scholars among the Mu\u02bftazila.
\nIbr\u0101h\u012bm b. Sulaym\u0101n b. Ab\u012b D\u0101\u1e25a al-Mazan\u012b: One of the foremost scholars of Basra, their leader in matters of jurisprudence, theology, and poetry, to the extent that J\u0101\u1e25i\u1e93 (d. 255 AH) narrates from him. He says: Ibr\u0101h\u012bm b. Ab\u012b D\u0101\u1e25a narrated for that Mu\u1e25ammad b. Ab\u012b \u02bfUmayr passed away in 217 AH. (Bay\u0101n, 1\/61) Based on this fact, and the fact that J\u0101\u1e25i\u1e93 narrates from him, he definitely belongs to the theologians of the Third Century.
\nShakk\u0101l: Ibn al-Nad\u012bm says that he was a close friend of Hish\u0101m b. \u1e24akam and while they disagreed over some issues, they were of the same mind regarding the issue of the Imamate. Some of his books include (1) Kit\u0101b al-Ma\u02bfrifa, (2) Kit\u0101b f\u012b al-Istit\u0101\u02bfa, (3) Kit\u0101b al-Im\u0101ma, (4) Kit\u0101b \u02bfal\u0101 Man Ab\u0101 Wuj\u016bb al-Im\u0101ma Bi al-Na\u1e63\u1e63. (Ibn al-Nad\u012bm, Al-Fihrist, p. 264) As Hish\u0101m b. \u1e24akam passed away at the end of the second century, Shakk\u0101l mush have died at the end of the second or the beginning of the third century.
\n\u1e24usayn b. Ashk\u012bb: In his Rij\u0101l, Kashsh\u012b includes him amongst the companions of Imam al-H\u0101d\u012b and says that he was a theologian, who authored some books and resided in Samarkand and Kashsh. One of his books refutes the idea that the Prophet believed in the religion of the Quraysh before he began his mission. He has also refuted the beliefs of Zaydiyya in another. As he is a companion of Imam al-H\u0101d\u012b who passed away in 254 AH, he belongs to the theologians of the Third Century. (Naj\u0101sh\u012b, no. 87) Shaykh al-\u1e6c\u016bs\u012b also included him among the Companions of Imam al-H\u0101d\u012b. (Ibid., 623)
\n\u02bfAbd al-Ra\u1e25m\u0101n b. A\u1e25mad b. Jabrawayh: An expert theologian, a skillful author and an eloquent speaker. It was through contact with him that Mu\u1e25ammad b. \u02bfAbd All\u0101h b. Mumallik al-I\u1e63fah\u0101n\u012b gave up the creed of the Mu\u02bftazila and embraced that of the Im\u0101miyya. He had a debate with \u02bfAb\u0101d b. Sulaym\u0101n. Naj\u0101sh\u012b reports that his al-K\u0101mil f\u012b al-Im\u0101ma is his only book available to us. Because Ibn Mumallik is contemporary with Jub\u0101\u02be\u012b, who died in 303AH, he should naturally belong to the theologians of the Third and the early Fourth Century.
\n\u02bfAl\u012b b. Man\u1e63\u016br: He lived in Baghdad and was among the followers of Hish\u0101m b. \u1e24akam. He wrote several books in theology. Some of them, like al-Tadb\u012br f\u012b al-Taw\u1e25\u012bd and al-Im\u0101ma are well-known. (Naj\u0101sh\u012b, no. 656) As Hish\u0101m b. \u1e24akam passed away at the end of the Second Century, his student \u02bfAl\u012b b. Man\u1e63\u016br would belong to the Third Century.
\n\u02bfAl\u012b b. Ism\u0101\u02bf\u012bl b. Shu\u02bfayb b. Maytham: He lived in Basra and was among the leading Sh\u012b\u02bfa theologians. He had some debates and scholarly exchanges with the Mu\u02bftazil\u012b Ab\u016b Hudhayl All\u0101f (135-235 A.H) and Na\u1e93\u1e93\u0101m (160-201). Among his books we can name al-Im\u0101ma, Maj\u0101lis Hish\u0101m b. \u1e24akam (probably containing the debates of Hish\u0101m) and a work on temporary marriage.
\nIbn al-Nad\u012bm says that the first person who spoke about the Imamate was \u02bfAl\u012b b. Ism\u0101\u02bf\u012bl whose grandfather was Maytham al-Tamm\u0101r, one of the companions of \u02bfAl\u012b. \u02bfAl\u012b b. Ism\u0101\u02bf\u012bl has a book about the Imamate entitled al-Im\u0101ma and another book under the title of al-Isti\u1e25q\u0101q.<\/p>\n
Sh\u012b\u02bfa Theologians of the Fourth Century
\n\u1e24asan b. \u02bfAl\u012b b. Ab\u012b \u02bfAq\u012bl, also known as Ab\u016b Mu\u1e25ammad, was a prominent Islamic jurist and a trusted theologian who wrote a few works, the most famous of which is al-Mutamassik bi \u1e25abl \u0100l al-Ras\u016bl. (Naj\u0101sh\u012b)
\nIsm\u0101\u02bf\u012bl b. Ab\u012b Sahl b. Nawbakht was a masterful theologian of his own time who wrote a few works, including al-Ist\u012bf\u0101\u02be f\u012b al-Im\u0101ma and al-Tanb\u012bh f\u012b al-Im\u0101ma. According to Ibn Nad\u012bm, Ism\u0101\u02bf\u012bl was a renowned Sh\u012b\u02bfa scholar and Ab\u016b al-\u1e24asan al-N\u0101sh\u012b refers to him as his teacher and as a very knowledgeable and prominent theologian. N\u0101sh\u012b gives a list of Ism\u0101\u02bf\u012bl\u2019s works and reports that he had discussions with some other theologians.
\n\u1e24usayn b. \u02bfAl\u012b b. Babwayh is Shaykh al-\u1e62ad\u016bq\u2019s brother who acquired the permission to narrate a\u1e25\u0101d\u012bth from their father. It is said that \u1e24usayn and his brother were born as a result of Imam al-Mahd\u012b\u2019s supplication. Ibn \u1e24ajar has provided a biography of \u1e24usayn in Lis\u0101n al-M\u012bz\u0101n. (Naj\u0101sh\u012b, Ibn al-Nad\u012bm, Lis\u0101n al-M\u012bz\u0101n)
\nMu\u1e25ammad b. Bishr al-\u1e24amd\u016bn\u012b, typically known as Ab\u016b al-\u1e24asan al-S\u016bsanjurd\u012b, was devoted follower of the Prophet\u2019s Household who composed a few works, including al-Muqni\u02bf f\u012b al-Im\u0101ma and al-Munqidh f\u012b al-Im\u0101ma. (Naj\u0101sh\u012b) According to Ibn al-Nad\u012bm, Susanjurd\u012b was a pupil of Ab\u016b Sahl al-Nawbakht\u012b, and was sometimes referred to as \u1e24amd\u016bni because of his association with the \u1e24amd\u016bn tribe. He wrote a book entitled al-Inq\u0101dh f\u012b al-Im\u0101ma. Ibn \u1e24ajar describes him as a pious and austere Sh\u012b\u02bfa theologian who has written works confirming his Sh\u012b\u02bfa beliefs. (Ibn al-Nad\u012bm)
\nAb\u016b Mu\u1e25ammad Ya\u1e25y\u0101 al-\u02bfAlaw\u012b, a member of the Ban\u016b Zubara, was a theologian and jurist of N\u012bsh\u0101b\u016br. In his Fihrist, Shaykh al-\u1e6c\u016bs\u012b describes him as a capable theologian and pious believer. He authored Ib\u1e6d\u0101l al-Qiy\u0101s and al-Taw\u1e25\u012bd. (Naj\u0101sh\u012b; \u1e6c\u016bs\u012b, Fihrist)
\nMu\u1e25ammad b. \u02bfAbd al-Ra\u1e25m\u0101n (Ab\u016b Ja\u02bffar), also known as Ibn Qiba al-R\u0101z\u012b, was a masterful theologian who wrote a book on theology. In his Fihrist, Ibn Ba\u1e6d\u1e6da reports to have studied traditions under Ibn Qiba. According to Ibn al-Nad\u012bm, Ab\u016b Ja\u02bffar was an erudite Sh\u012b\u02bfa theologian who wrote, among other books, al-In\u1e63\u0101f f\u012b al-Im\u0101ma and Kit\u0101b al-Im\u0101ma. (Fihrist) \u02bfAll\u0101mah, in his Khul\u0101\u1e63ah, refers to Ibn Qiba as a skillful Sh\u012b\u02bfa scholar of his own day.
\nAb\u016b al-\u1e24asan N\u0101sh\u012b (271-365 AH), whose real name is \u02bfAl\u012b b. Wa\u1e63\u012bf, has been introduced by Naj\u0101sh\u012b as a poet and a theologian. According to Muf\u012bd, as Naj\u0101sh\u012b reports, N\u0101sh\u012b has a book on the Imamate. Shaykh al-\u1e6c\u016bs\u012b refers to him as capable poet and a skillful theologian with a few books. (Fihrist)
\nAccording to Ibn Khalik\u0101n, \u2018N\u0101sh\u012b was as an adherent of the Sh\u012b\u02bf\u012b Imams who composed some poems in praise of these the Imams. He learned theology from Ab\u016b Sahl Ism\u0101\u02bf\u012bl b. \u02bfAl\u012b b. Nawbakht and is considered a great Sh\u012b\u02bfa thinker with some works.\u2019 Ibn Kath\u012br says, \u2018Nashi is a preeminent Sh\u012b\u02bfa thinker.\u2019 Therefore, he is a Fourth Century theologian. (Tanq\u012b\u1e25 al-Maq\u0101l)<\/p>\n
\u1e24asan b. M\u016bs\u0101, known as Ab\u016b Mu\u1e25ammad Nawbakht\u012b, was an eminent scholar who flourished at around the turn of the Fourth Century. He wrote a few works refuting some ideas of the previous philosophers and theologians, including: 1) al-Ar\u0101\u02be wa al-Diy\u0101n\u0101t, about which Naj\u0101sh\u012b says, \u2018It is a great work containing excellent knowledge of various sorts. I studied the book with my teacher Shaykh al-Muf\u012bd\u2019; 2) Firaq al-Sh\u012b\u02bfa; 3) al-Radd \u02bfal\u0101 Firaq al-Sh\u012b\u02bfa m\u0101 Khal\u0101 al-Im\u0101miyya and 4) al-J\u0101mi\u02bf f\u012b al-Im\u0101miyya. Ibn Nad\u012bm speaks very well of \u1e24asan b. M\u016bs\u0101, which shows that he was a prominent theologian of the Fourth Century and a contemporary of Jub\u0101\u02be\u012b (d. 303 AH) and Balkh\u012b (d. 319 AH).
\nShaykh al-Muf\u012bd (336-413 AH) was the greatest theologian of the Fourth Century who was widely known in the world of that age and has left us a good number of valuable works. Ibn Nad\u012bm, a contemporary of Muf\u012bd, says of him, \u2018Ibn al-Mu\u02bfallim, the leading theologian of our age, is most skillful in theology and very intelligent with a strong memory. I have seen him myself: he is an able theologian.\u2019 (Fihrist)
\nIbn al-Jawz\u012b writes, \u2018He is a leader of the Sh\u012b\u02bfa and a leading theologian who has several works on the Sh\u012b\u02bfa. Murta\u1e0d\u0101 is one of his followers. Ibn al-Mu\u02bfallim used to hold courses at his residence in Darb Rab\u0101\u1e25 where all scholars used to gather. The Buyid rulers liked him very much because they were his followers. (al-Munta\u1e93am)<\/p>\n
Y\u0101fi\u02bf\u012b (768 AH) writes: \u2018In 413 AH, the senior Sh\u012b\u02bfa scholar and author of a large number of books, Shaykh al-Muf\u012bd, passed away. He was also known as Ibn al-Mu\u02bfallim. He was a prominent figure in theology, scholarly debate and jurisprudence. He used to have discussions with followers of all faiths. He was highly respected by the Buyid government. Ibn Ab\u012b Tayy says: \u2018He used to donate frequently. He was very humble. He never missed his prayers or fasting. He was attired in casual and coarse dress.\u2019 Another one days: \u2018\u02bfA\u1e0dd ad-Dawla Daylam\u012b used to visit Shaykh al-Muf\u012bd on many occasions. The Shaykh was someone of medium stature, thin and with a light complexion. He lived for 76 years and authored more than 200 books. Some 80,000 Sh\u012b\u02bfa and R\u0101fi\u1e0da were reported to have attended his funeral.\u2019 (Mir\u02be\u0101t al-Jin\u0101n)<\/p>\n
Ab\u016b al-Fid\u0101\u02be b. Kath\u012br (d. 774 AH), praises him as follows: \u2018He was the leader of the Im\u0101miyya and Sh\u012b\u02bfa, a prominent author of theirs and the guardian of their territory. A large number of scholars of different faiths used to attend his courses.\u2019 (al-Bid\u0101ya wa al-Nih\u0101ya)<\/p>\n
Dhahab\u012b (d. 748 AH) says: \u2018He was a Sh\u012b\u02bfa scholar and the leader of the R\u0101fi\u1e0da. He authored many books. Ibn Ab\u012b Tayy mentions in his T\u0101r\u012bkh al-Im\u0101miyya that he was the teacher all Sh\u012b\u02bfa scholars and their spokesperson. . He was a prominent figure in theology, scholarly debate and jurisprudence. He used to have discussions with followers of all faiths. He was highly respected by the Buyid government.\u2019 (al-\u02bfIbra)<\/p>\n
Ibn \u1e24ajar writes: \u2018He was humble and he used to extend his prayers. He was always looking into scholarly issues. A large number of people learned from him. In the eyes of the Im\u0101miyya, he was very capable. The Sh\u012b\u02bfa owe much to him. His father was a teacher in Wasit. Muf\u012bd used to sleep for a few hours before getting up and resuming his studies, prayers and recitation of the Qur\u02be\u0101n.\u2019 (Lis\u0101n al-M\u012bz\u0101n)<\/p>\n
Now, let us hear what two students of Shaykh al-Muf\u012bd have to say; Shaykh al-\u1e6c\u016bs\u012b (385-460 AH) writes in his Fihrist: Shaykh al-Muf\u012bd, better known as Ibn al-Mu\u02bfallim, is a theologian of the Im\u0101miyya. He became the head of the sect and was a prominent theologian. He was a high-ranking and assiduous scholar who had good memory and was always ready to respond. He wrote 200 books of varying size the list of his works is well known. He was born in 338 AH and passed way in 413 AH. The day of his departure was a historic occasion. Never had Baghdad seen such a mournful day.\u2019 Naj\u0101sh\u012b (372-450 AH), says: \u2018The position of Shaykh al-Muf\u012bd, the great scholar, is beyond description in words.\u2019<\/p>\n
We have briefly reviewed the most prominent Sh\u012b\u02bfa theologians of the Fourth Century. Those who would like to learn more about Sh\u012b\u02bfa scholars throughout 14 centuries can refer to \u1e6cabaq\u0101t al-Mutakallim\u012bn, printed in five volumes by the Imam S\u0101diq Institute.<\/p>\n
Now we will review some of the prominent philosophers from the Fourth Century onwards:<\/p>\n
F\u0101r\u0101b\u012b (260-339 AH): Mu\u1e25ammad b. \u1e6carakh\u0101n, or Mu\u1e25ammad b. A\u1e25mad b. \u1e6carakh\u0101n, carried the teknonym Ab\u016b Nasr but is better known as al-F\u0101r\u0101b\u012b. He lived in the Fourth Century when the Buyids ruled. He was well versed in Greek philosophy and His mastery of this discipline won him the title of \u2018Second Teacher\u2019, versus the First Teacher title attributed to Aristotle. Avicenna read many of F\u0101r\u0101b\u012b\u2019s books.
\nF\u0101r\u0101b\u012b began his studies in Fary\u0101b, where he was born. In Iran, he learned Persian and other languages. He then moved to Baghdad where he perfected his Arabic. He learnt logic from Ab\u016b Bishr, who was the only one to know this branch of science. He used to communicate with \u1e62\u0101\u1e25ib b. \u02bfAb\u0101d and the Sh\u012b\u02bfa in Baghdad. He then went to Harr\u0101n to attend the lessons of Yu\u1e25ann\u0101 Khayr\u0101n. He returned to Baghdad and learnt mathematics and techniques of philosophy. He reviewed the books of Aristotle meticulously and was adroit at interpreting the latter\u2019s views. F\u0101r\u0101b\u012b is the author of 44 books, two of the most important of which are as follows:<\/p>\n
Ar\u0101\u02be Ahl al-Mad\u012bna al-F\u0101\u1e0dila: This book has been printed in Egypt and Leiden. The late Aq\u0101 Buzurg \u1e6cihr\u0101n\u012b has deduced from the contents of this book that F\u0101r\u0101b\u012b was Sh\u012b\u02bfa.<\/p>\n
Al-Ib\u0101na \u02bfan Ghara\u1e0d al-Aris\u1e6d\u0101t\u0101l\u012bs f\u012b Kit\u0101b Ma Ba\u02bfd al-Tab\u012b\u02bfa \u2013 \u2018On the goals of Aristotle in his book, the Metaphysics.\u2019<\/p>\n
His books mainly focus on logic, philosophy and natural science. For more information, Ray\u1e25anat al-Adab, authored by \u02bfAll\u0101ma Mu\u1e25ammad \u02bfAl\u012b Mudarris, is highly recommended.<\/p>\n
Avicenna (370-428 AH): Following F\u0101r\u0101b\u012b, Avicenna is the most prominent Muslim philosopher. He emerged in the Islamic East and made great contributions to science. He is well known in the East and the West. Muslims and Orientalists have written a great deal about him. It would not be needed to list all of his works or students but we will highlight two of his most important books of philosophy:
\nAl-Shif\u0101\u02be: A major book about logic, theology, mathematics, physics and philosophy. This book has been printed in Iran and Egypt. One phrase in this book suggests Avicenna is Sh\u012b\u02bfa: \u2018It would be more realistic to choose a leader based on S\u012bra as a successor to the Prophet, because the Prophet\u2019s view puts an end to any dispute and discrepancy.\u2019<\/p>\n
Al-Ish\u0101r\u0101t: This book speaks about logic, physics and theology and is an important textbook of classical philosophy in intellectual centres. Fakhr al-R\u0101z\u012b (546-606 AH) and Nas\u012br al-D\u012bn \u1e6c\u016bs\u012b (597-672 AH) have written commentarties on this book.<\/p>\n
Na\u1e63\u012br al-D\u012bn al-\u1e6c\u016bs\u012b (597-672 AH): one of the leading theologians, philosophers and scientists of his day. His intellectual stature is beyond description. He made contributions to the all theoretical sciences and was a prominent teacher of logic. Both his followers and his oppnents acknowledge his erudition.
\nKam\u0101l al-D\u012bn Maytham al-Ba\u1e25r\u0101n\u012b (636-699 AH): A scientist, philosopher and theologian. His command of logic is seen in his commentary on Nahj al-Bal\u0101gha. He has also a book under the title of Qawa\u2019id al-Maram f\u012b Ilm al-Kalam.
\n\u02bfAll\u0101ma al-\u1e24ill\u012b: A Sh\u012b\u02bfa theologian who rose to prominence due to his high level of knowledge in Islamic sciences. Some of his works are as follows:
\nal-Jawhar al-Na\u1e0d\u012bd f\u012b Shar\u1e25 Man\u1e6diq al-Tajr\u012bd<\/p>\n
Kashf al-Mur\u0101d f\u012b Shar\u1e25 Tajr\u012bd al-I\u02bftiq\u0101d<\/p>\n
He has more than twenty books on the rational disciplines.<\/p>\n
Qu\u1e6db al-D\u012bn al-R\u0101z\u012b (766 AH): The student of \u02bfAll\u0101ma al-\u1e24ill\u012b and teacher of Shah\u012bd al-Awwal, and the author of works on logic and a recorder of the debates between Fakhr al-R\u0101z\u012b and \u1e6c\u016bs\u012b.
\nNow we turn our attention to the Shi\u2019a theologians of the later centuries:<\/p>\n
F\u0101\u1e0dil Miqd\u0101d (808 AH): The author of Nahj al-Mustarshid\u012bn f\u012b al-Kal\u0101m.
\nBah\u0101\u02be al-D\u012bn al-\u02bf\u0100mil\u012b (953-1030), Shaykh Bah\u0101\u02be\u012b
\nSayyid Mu\u1e25ammad B\u0101qir, known as M\u012br D\u0101m\u0101d, the author of the Qabas\u0101t.
\n\u1e62adr al-D\u012bn Sh\u012br\u0101z\u012b (971-1050), also known as Mull\u0101 Sadr\u0101, he was the student of Shaykh Bah\u0101\u02be\u012b and M\u012br Dam\u0101d. Recently, Shaykh \u02bfAbd All\u0101h Ni\u02bfma has written a book on Sh\u012b\u02bfa philosophy in which he names most Sh\u012b\u02bfa philosophers; Sh\u012b\u02bfa scholars were always interested in the science of logic and this state of affairs has continued until the present day. During the past fourteen centuries, remarkable works on the science of logic have been authored. Whatever we said here rebuts the views of the Orientalist Adam Metz about Sh\u012b\u02bfa, namely that they were merely the inheritors of the thought of the Mu\u02bftazila rather than distinct sect with their own ideas. (The Renaissance of Islam)
\nThe Imam S\u0101diq Institute recently published a five-volume book under the title of Maws\u016b\u02bfat al-Kutub al-Kal\u0101miyya, which lists the names of the theologians and their works. Some 13,000 Kalam books are authored by Sh\u012b\u02bfa scholars; these figures were for the period ending in 1378 AH.<\/p>\n
From the very beginning, the Sh\u012b\u02bfa were followers of Imam \u02bfAl\u012b and his successors. In some cases, the Mu\u02bftazila school might seen as sharing certain commonalities with Shi\u2019ism, but this does not in any way lessen the intellectual stature of Shi\u2019ism. Moreover, during the first four centuries, the Sh\u012b\u02bfa wrote many books against Mu\u02bftazila. More information can be found in Shaykh al-Muf\u012bd\u2019s writings.<\/p>\n
Mathematics and Natural Sciences
\nThe Sh\u012b\u02bfa were not only interested in metaphysics, they also participated in discussions on science and mathematics. We can detect this interest even in their earliest writings:<\/p>\n
Hish\u0101m b. \u1e24akam (199 AH) gave views on phenomena such as color, taste and smell. His views influenced those of Na\u1e93\u1e93\u0101m. He describes smell as follows: \u2018Smell results from the particles rising from an object and evaporating. These particles affect the nose glands. Taste is also comprised of particles separated from an object.\u2019 (Falasafat al-Sh\u012b\u02bfa)<\/p>\n
The Nawbakht\u012b family produced some of the most famous Sh\u012b\u02bfa scholars and scientists of their day; they translated books on science and astronomy from Persian into Arabic.<\/p>\n
Ibn al-Nad\u012bm says that the Nawbakht\u012b family were followers of Imam \u02bfAl\u012b and his successors, and that they were well-known in their time. Some of the most important members of this family are as follows:<\/p>\n
Ab\u016b al-Fa\u1e0dl b. Nawbakht: Ibn al-Nad\u012bm says he was employed in the court of H\u0101r\u016bn al-Rash\u012bd. Ibn al-Qift\u012b says Ab\u016b al-Fa\u1e0dl b. Nawbakht was one of the expert theologians of his day and he lived in the same period as H\u0101r\u016bn al-Rash\u012bd. Ibn Nawbakht was in charge of the court\u2019s library and he was a scholar of the second century.<\/p>\n
Is\u1e25\u0101q b. Nawbakht: He was the son of Ab\u016b al-Fa\u1e0dl b. Nawbakht. He lived in the Third Century.<\/p>\n
Ya\u02bfq\u016bb b. Is\u1e25\u0101q b. Nawbakht expert in philosophy, theology and astronomy. (Raw\u1e0d\u0101t al-Jann\u0101t)<\/p>\n
Ab\u016b \u02bfAl\u012b A\u1e25mad b. Mu\u1e25ammad b. Ya\u02bfq\u016bb, Ibn Miskawayh: He was a great Sh\u012b\u02bfa philosopher. He has books on philosophy and mathematics. (Ibid.)<\/p>\n
J\u0101bir b. Hayy\u0101n: He was a great Sh\u012b\u02bfa alchemist and scientist. He was the first one to discover the layers of human\u2019s eye and he was the first to believe that the least valuable metals could be converted into gold and silver. He developed certain chemical concepts like special weight for metals and non-metals (Falasafat al-Sh\u012b\u02bfa). Numerous books have been written on his life and it is well-known that he was a disciple of Imam al-S\u0101diq.<\/p>\n
Ab\u016bl-Q\u0101sim \u02bfAl\u012b b. Q\u0101sim al-Qa\u1e63r\u012b: This Sh\u012b\u02bfa astronomer lived in the 4th century. His mastery of astronomy is highlighted in the Faraj al-Mahm\u016bm of Ibn \u1e6c\u0101w\u016bs.<\/p>\n
As we mentioned earlier, the respected author Shaykh \u02bfAbd All\u0101h Ni\u02bfma has detailed the biography of Sh\u012b\u02bfa theologians and philosophers in his book Falasafat al-Sh\u012b\u02bfa. However, before moving on we must mention the name of an internationally acclaimed figure in Islamic learning:<\/p>\n
Nasir al-D\u012bn \u1e6c\u016bs\u012b convinced the Mongol ruler, Hulagu, to focus on science and astronomy. Then, he set up an observatory in Maragha and established a library with over 400,000 books. Scientists from Spain, Syria, Caucasus and Iraq were brought there to study the heavenly bodies.<\/p>\n
These were examples of Sh\u012b\u02bfa scholars who specialized in physics and experimental sciences who lived in the first centuries. If we intend to review the Sh\u012b\u02bfa scholars of the later centuries, a separate book would be needed to do them justice.<\/p>\n
Geography
\nBriefly, we will mention two valuable Sh\u012b\u02bfa figures in geography:<\/p>\n
Ya\u02bfq\u016bb\u012b (d. c. 292 AH), author of al-Buld\u0101n: He is the first geographer to have authored accounts of his travels. He begins his Buld\u0101n as follows:
\n\u2018When I was young, I was interested in learning about other lands and the distances between territories. I made huge efforts to that effect. I was young when I started travelling. My travels lasted long and I was away from my hometown. Anytime I ran across someone from another country I used to ask about his city. Then I asked about his country. I took note of the names of countries, provinces and cities and I also noted climatic conditions as well as tribal groups. I also noted the distance between cities and countries and also which commander of the Islamic armies had conquered there. I also took note of water sources and temperature in different countries.\u2019 (al-Buld\u0101n)<\/p>\n
Abu al-\u1e24asan Mas\u02bf\u016bdi, author of Mur\u016bj al-Dhahab. He has many valuable works including: Mur\u016bj al-Dhahab, al-T\u0101r\u012bkh f\u012b Akhb\u0101r al-Umam, al-Tanb\u012bh wa al-Ishr\u0101f. In order to get familiar with the geography of the world, he travelled a lot so that he could gather the specifications of all countries.<\/p>\n