[1] Author’s Note: Concerning the various implicit meanings of the technical term Wilayah and other related terms derived from the trilateral Arabic root W-L-Y, see M. Mutahhari Wala’ha wa Wilayat ha (Qum 1976). There is an English version by Yayha Cooper, Wilayah: The Station of the Master (Tehran 1982), 21-48. Concerning the levels of Wilayah, see D. Martin “The Return to ‘The One’ in the Philosophy of Najm al-Din al-Kubra” in P. Morewedge (ed.) 216-222.

participle mawla means, among other things, “one who deserves a clientele,” and more frequently “boss,” “lord,” “protector,” “tutor,” “master,” “owner” and so forth. In Shi‘ism, mawlana [our lord / our master] is used to address the Prophet and the Imams and, in Sufism, it is used to refer to the great spiritual masters like Rumi[1] or Ibn al-‘Arabi. We have listed the various forms and verbal nouns because with the auxiliary one can better understand everything which is implied by the idea of Imamate or Caliphate and how it is conceived in Shi‘ite thought in relation to spiritual authority and temporal power. In the time of the Prophet, the title mawla [master] had the connotation of spiritual authority and universal temporal power. The basis of any Caliphate or true government is the transcendence of its foundation, the very basis of its sovereignty, authority and legitimacy. However, with the downfall of effective power in the succession of the Caliphate, starting with Abu Bakr, the title khalifah also suffered from the same process of depreciation. After the four khulafa’ al-rashidin [Rightly-Guided Caliphs], the Caliphate ceased to have the connotation of sovereignty and, in fact, to admit the sense of effective authority. This can be seen clearly with Mu‘awiyyah, the founder of the ‘Ummayad dynasty, who considered himself the “first king [malik]” of Islam.[2] He is responsible for losing the effective [spiritual] authority of the Caliphate and diminishing the meaning of many titles which, in the early days, were exclusive Caliphal prerogatives. This includes the very term khalif which, upon entering the common language, became so diluted that any governor of Islam could claim to be the Caliph of his own dominion.

[1] Editor’s Note: Jalal al-Din al-Rumi, author of the Masnaviwas a famous Sufi poet and founder of the whirling dervishes. He is the most widely read poet in the United States.
[2] Editor’s Note: As a result of “the usurpation of rule by Mu‘awiyyah from ‘Ali… caused the system of rule to lose its Islamic character entirely and to be replaced by a monarchical regime” (Khumayni Islam and Revolution 200).

Among some Sunni commentators and misinformed Orientalists, there are those who believe that when ‘Ali became the Fourth Caliph, according to the temporal and political precedence more than the spiritual, he was implicitly accepting the authority and the method of election of the previous Caliphs in that they accomplished similar political and social functions as governors and elders of the Islamic community.[1] From a Shi‘ite perspective, it is clear that ‘Ali never accepted the Caliphate in the sense that the three Caliphs who preceded him did. On the contrary, as Imam–in the Shi‘ite sense of spiritual and political regency as well as ta‘alim, the esoteric faculty of perfectly interpreting the intertexual mysteries of the Qur’an and the shari‘ah–‘Ali was the legitimate spiritual heir and political successor of the Prophet, something which he and his successors always insisted upon. As he explains explicitly in his letters and sermons, ‘Ali accepted the function of Caliph–in the Sunni sense of governor and legal administrator–to avoid schism while preserving the function of wilayah for himself. As Nasr says, this is how ‘Ali can simultaneously be seeing as Caliph and Imam, by both Sunnis and Shi‘ites, in accord with the different perspectives on the issue (see Nasr’s preface to Tabataba‘i’s Shi‘ite Islam 10-12).

The wilayah inherently implies certain legal and political faculties. The Imam, as we have said, exercises the spiritual magistrate and the esoteric guidance of the wilayah. He also performs the function of administrator of the shari‘ah, fully interpreting its legal code and legitimately and dispensing justice through his role as perfect monarch, by the fact that he embodies spiritual authority and temporal power. The monarch [from the Greek monos, “the sole one” and arjé, “rule,” “principle”] is the

[1] Editor’s Note: As Ja‘fariyan explains,
[W]hen ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf laid down the condition that he would deliver the office of the caliphate to the candidate who would follow the practice [sirah] of the Shaykhayn [i.e. Abu Bakr and ‘Umar] … Imam ‘Ali insisted that he would base his policy only on the Qur’an, the sirah of the Prophet and his own judgements [ijtihad].

“supreme sovereign,” unique and universal,” and not merely a “king” [malik] since a king only administers the temporal functions of government while the monarch is the one who rules according to the monarchy of divine right, established from above, by the mandate of God and not by human choice.

As Lord Acton, a British historian of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries said, “Power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely.” As human history has shown us, human lust for power can become exacerbated by its very existence. It can make man dream of limitless power, causing him to rebel against his plight, his powerless limited being. Justice and peace are then viewed as unacceptable unless they can help increase and maintain power and wealth. They are soon placed on the backburner due to innate egocentrism and worldly ambitions. This is why the Gospel refers to heads of nations as tyrants who rule like absolute sovereigns while the powerful ones oppress them with their power (Matthew 20:25; Mark 10: 42). In a divine monarchy, based on balance, harmony, justice and peace, quite the opposite is true.

On the basis of the above, it can now be understood why in Shi‘ism, the sovereign authority of Imam al-Mahdi has an eminently regulating and restorative function which is proper and non-transferable. In other words, he is worthy, by divine design, of the “central” position he occupies. As an “intercessor” between heaven and earth, he is beyond the distinction between the spiritual and wordly realms of existence. The very nature of “intercessor” in the true sense of the word is quintessential to the seal of the cycle of initiation. It is for this reason that he is referred to as the “center” [wasat].[1]

[1] Editor’s Note: The existence of divinely determined intercession for believers is unquestionably Qur’anic:
Who is there can intercede in His presence except as He permitteth? (2:255)
Verily your Lord is Allah, who created the heavens and the earth in

six days, and is firmly established on the throne [of authority], regulating and governing all things. No intercessor [can plead with Him] except after His leave [hath been obtained]. (10:3)
None shall have the power of intercession, but such a one as has received  permission [or promise] from [Allah] Most Gracious (19:87)
On that Day shall no intercession avail except for those for whom permission has been granted by [Allah] Most Gracious and whose word is acceptable to Him. (20:109)
He knows what is before them, and what is behind them, and they offer no intercession except for those who are acceptable, and they stand in awe and reverence of His [Glory].(21:28)
No intercession can avail in His Presence, except for those for whom He has granted permission. (34:23)
Say: To Allah belongs exclusively [the right to grant] intercession. (39:44)
How many-so-ever be the angels in the heavens, their intercession will avail nothing except after Allah has given leave for whom He pleases and that he is acceptable to Him. (53:26)
Intercession, however, is not available to unbelievers, as is clearly stated in the Qur’an (6:51; 2:123; 2:254; 6:70; 6:94; 7:53; 10:18; 19:87; 26:100; 30:30; 32:4; 36:23; 39:43; 40:18; 43:86; 74:48). Intercession is not available to those who are guilty of kufr or shirk. Almighty Allah addresses the polytheists, warning them that their partners will be unable to intercede with them on the Day of Judgement.
According to Shaykh Sadduq:
The right to intercession belongs to the prophets [anbiya’] and awliya’. And among the believers [mu’minin] also there are some who can intercede on behalf of people equal in number to the tribes of Rabi‘ah and Mudar. Even the least of the believers will be liable to intercede on behalf of 30,000. (122)
It is narrated in Sadduq’s Risalatu al-i‘tiqadat, Fakhruddin b. Ahmad al-Najafi’s Majma‘u’l bahrayn and Hasan b. Yusuf b. ‘Ali Ibnu’l Mutahar al-Hilli’s al-Babu al-hadi ‘ashar, that the Prophet said: “May Allah not grant my intercession to him who does not believe in my (power of) intercession.”
All of the various orthodox manifestations of Islam believe in the

The “center” in question is the fixed point around which the world rotates. It is designated symbolically by all religious traditions as the “pole” [qutb] and is generally represented by a “wheel.” The most obvious sense of this symbol is the absolute dominion over the worldly order. This is why Imam al-Mahdi receives the majestic titles of sahib al-zaman  [Lord of the Age], al-arkan [The Pillars], al-qa’im [The Restorer], al-muntazar [The Awaited One], al-hujjah  [The Proof] as well as al-qutb or the Spiritual Pole of the Age. The title of sahib al-zaman, in its most sublime sense, applies exclusively to the Mahdi. He is granted this title in virtue of his role as the primordial universal legislator who formulates the most appropriate laws in accordance with the conditions during our cycle of existence. He directs the movement of our cycle without participating in it in a visible fashion. He maintains himself simultaneously present and hidden in the world, the same as in Aristotle’s notion of the “unmoving motor.”

In light of these considerations, it is understood why Imam al-Mahdi has the fundamental attributes of “Justice” and “Peace.” He shares these attributes with Çakravarti, [from the Sanskrit: “he who makes the wheel turn”], the “Universal Monarch” of the Hindu and Buddhist traditions; with Wang, the “Pontiff King” of Taoism and with melki-tsedeq, the “King of Justice and Peace” of the Jewish tradition.[1] The Invisible Imam’s attributes of justice and peace are veiled forms of his spiritual functions which, by an effort of cosmic unity, are identified with earthly equilibrium and harmony. In light of these concepts, we can affirm that the Shi‘ite concept of wilayah, the spiritual and temporal authority of the Imam, is the Islamic equivalent of all of these traditional notions

intercession of the Prophet and the awliya’. See Kabbani’s Encyclopedia of Islamic Doctrines: http://www.sunnah. org/ibadaat/ twsl.html.
The belief in intercession does not mean that there is an intermediary between human beings and God. It is merely an extra means of attaining His mercy.
[1] Editor’s Note: The Hidden Imam is also the Philosopher King of the Greeks.

from both East and West, including the Hellenist and Hellenist-Christian concept of the panbasileus or “Absolute King,” who was the lord of a unique and universal empire.

Imam al-Mahdi is particularly revered for his role as Executor of Prophetic Knowledge or First Intellect. At the same time, he is the Archetype of Man, the Visible and the Invisible, the First and the Last, the Alpha and the Omega. As Henry Corbin perceived from the development of Shi‘ite Prophetology, this human form in its pre-eternal glory is called Original Adam [Adam al-haqiqi], the Perfect Man [insan kamil], the Supreme Spirit and Scribe, the Absolute Caliph, and the Pole of the Poles [qutb al-aqtab].[1] Imam al-Mahdi is also the Eternal Muhammadan Reality [haqiqah muhammadiyyah], the Light of His Glory, His Sanctifying Virtue, His Primordial Logos or Divine Word and his Perfect Epiphany.

In light of the above, we can say that in the beginning of Islam, Shi‘ism, like Sufism, was a latent and nameless reality profoundly rooted in the esoteric dimension of the Qur’anic revelation.[2] In

[1] Author’s Note: In general, Corbin deals with this theme in his diverse works dedicated to some of the internal or esoteric currents of Shi‘ism, although with slight variations. See “La filosofia islámica desde sus orígenes hasta la muerte de Averroes” in collaboration with S.H. Nasr and O. Iahia, in B. Parain, Del mundo romano al Islam medieval: Historia de la filosofía (Mexico 1972), III, 253-259; 265-266; Terre céleste et corps de résurrection: De l’Iran Mazdéen à l’Iran shi‘ite (Correa 1960); 106-107; 112-115; Temples et contemplation: Essais sur l’Islam iranien (Paris 1980), 75-76; 192-193; 220; 244-249; and Shaykh al-Mufid’s Kitab al-irshad.
[2] Editor’s Note: The mystical dimension of the Holy Qur‘an and teachings of the Prophet were present from the very beginning, even though they were not labeled tasawwuf, Sufism or ‘irfan. To borrow Sausurrian terms, the signified exists before the signifier. Imam ‘Ali was criticized by some Companions of the Prophet for speaking of things which had never been spoken before by the Prophet. The Imam responded with a reference to the Qur’an that “Prophets speak to the people in the language of the people.” It was the obligation of the

Prophet to teach the fundamentals of faith and the outer dimensions of the religion. It was the obligation of the Imams to expound upon in their inner dimensions. As the Messenger of Allah said: “There is among you a person who will fight for the interpretation of the Qur’an just as I fought for its revelation.” He then indicated that it was ‘Ali (Ahmad, Hakim, Bayhaqi, Abu Na‘im, Muttaqi). It is regrettable that a scholar of the caliber of Ayatullah al-Uzma Shaykh Fazel Lankarani has rejected mysticism ruling that “Sufism, in the eyes of Shi‘ism, in general, [as well as] Islamically, has no religious basis, and there is no sign of it in the teachings of the Prophet” (http://www.lankarani.net/ English/faq/en.htm). This was the very attitude addressed by Imam Khumayni in Islam and Revolution where he laments that:
We find some scholars…denying the validity of mysticism and thus depriving themselves of a form of knowledge. It is regrettable… Those who wear cloaks and turbans and denounce the mystics as unbelievers do not understand what they are saying; if they did, they would not denounce them” (423-424).
Merely because the words sufi and ‘arif are not found in the Islamic texts of the first century Hijrah does not signify that mysticism and Gnosis did not exist. They did in fact exist under the general umbrella of ‘ilm [knowledge]. As official institutionalized Islam became increasingly legalistic and focused on the exoteric foundations of the faith, the adherents of its mystical and esoteric dimension needed to distinguish themselves by calling their science ‘irfan and by designating themselves as Sufis (Awani 169). All prophets were mystics as were their faithful followers. The first paragons of Sufism were the ashab al-sufah, the Companions of the Ledge, about whom Surah 18:28 was revealed (170). They included such distinguished companions as Salman, Abu Dharr and ‘Ammar al-Yasir (170). The early Sufis were called zuhhad or ascetics, many of whom were associated with Shi‘ite Imams (170). Among the companions of ‘Ali were found spiritual figures and ascetics like Kumayl and Maytham al-Tammar (170). In his Essay on the Origins of the Technical Language of Islamic Mysticism, Massignon shows that Islamic mystics or ruhaniyyah have existed since the dawn of Islam. Islamic mysticism is clearly based on the practice of the Prophet, the Imams and their Companions and is directly derived from the Qur’an and the Sunnah, both of which are oceans of mystical manifestations. As Awani observes:

The hadith literature in Shi‘ism and the anthologies of the hadiths handed down from the Imams are the veritable mines of Islamic gnosis. The Usul al-kafi of Kulayni and the other compendia of Shi‘i hadith are real treasures of ‘irfan… Moreover, the Shi’i prayers and litanies found in al-Sahifah al-sajadiyyah of the fourth Imam…is the best exposition and representation of Islamic gnosis. Some Shi’i prayers, like Da‘wah sha‘baniyyah, Du‘a’ ‘Arafah, and Du‘a’ Kumayl highlight the highest themes of Islamic gnosis. Shi‘i prayer books are replete with ritual formulae for acts of superrogation [nawafil] also much emphasized in Sufism and sometimes with identical formulations. The ritual invocation of the Beautiful Divine Names is the focus of emphasis in both Shi‘ism and Sufism. For example, Du‘a’ Jawshan kabir, found in Shi‘i prayer books contains one thousand divine names and is recited by pious Shi‘i on many occasions and a least once a week. Some identical formulae based directly and indirectly on the verses of the Qur’an are reiterated in both. The Shi‘i canonical books of hadith are filled with themes which can be made the object of meditation and contemplation and which can find their true explanation in real ‘irfan. (174)
As Ayatullah Muhammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi explains,
The points which can be found among the narrations attributed to the Noble Prophet and Pure Imams, may Allah bless all of them, and in their supplications and intimate devotions related to the above topics [‘irfan, Sufism, hikmah] are uncountable.
A religion without mysticism would not be a religion. As Ayatullah Misbah Yazdi explains, gnosis is not only a part of Islam, but the kernel and spirit of it which comes from the Qur’an and prophetic Sunnah, just as the other parts of Islam. It would be a dry carcass and an empty shell. As Awani explains, “esoterism in each religion, which constitutes its core and kernel, is an integral part of that religion without which it cannot be a religion to start with;” “esoterism is the sine qua non of every religion, without which the religion would lose its vertical dimension and would be reduced to a horizontal and mundane level” (172). Sufism is not an extraneous accretion super added to Islam … it is its esoteric or inward aspect [batin] as distinguished from the exoteric or external aspect [zahir]” (171-72). It is safe to say that “Sufism is totally based upon the Holy Qur’an, the sunnah of the Prophet, and the Household [‘Itrah]” (172).

the Islamic world, the function of Shi‘ism, like that of Sufism, is similar to the human heart in the sense that the heart is the vital center of the human body as well as being, in reality, the intellectual “center” of a reality that transcends any formal determination.[1] This “central” role of Shi‘ism at the heart of the Islamic world has always, and continues to be, hidden from outside observers, who insist upon its non-Islamic origin. They insist on this theory because Shi‘ite doctrine does not appear in the first centuries, particularly during the life of the Prophet, with all of the metaphysical development that would manifest itself

Besides Ayatullahs Muhammad Taqi al-Behjat, ‘Izz al-Din Husayni Zanjani, Sayyid Mirza ‘Ali Tabataba’i, Jawadi Amuli, Lutfullah al-Safi al-Gulpaygani, Mirza Muhammad ‘Ali Shahabadi, Muhammad Husayn al-Burujerdi, Abu al-Qasim al-Khu’i, Muhammad Sadiq al-Sadr, among many others, the mystical dimensions of Islam have also been fully appreciated by Ayatullahs Khumayni, Tabataba’i and Mutahhari who left us their interiorized insights in Light Within Me which is also available in an excellent Spanish translation titled Luz interior. ‘Allamah Tabataba’i was a specialist in exegesis, mysticism and philosophy while Ayatullah Mutahhari was an expert in both Eastern and Western thought. Imam Khumayni has also left us his Forty Hadith: An Exposition of Ethical and Mystical Traditions, which has been partly translated into English, as well as a beautiful body of mystical poetry. The greatness of Imam Khumayni was that, like the Prophet, he established equilibrium between the exoteric and the esoteric, between the worldly and the spiritual, and between religion and politics. He was able to function on various levels. Scholars like Khumayni, who are jurists, exegetes, mystics, philosophers, sociologists and poets, are few and hard to find. As Murata observes, “[o]ne of the most unfortunate signs of the contemporary malaise of the Islamic world is that the intellectual authorities have all but disappeared from the scene, while the jurists have a free hand to say what they want” (3).
[1] Editor’s Note: For the Arabs, Aztecs and Incas, the heart is the center of human intellect and spirituality. For them, reasoning is related to feelings and emotions. In the Western world, the intellect resides in the mind.

later on.[1]

From a historical perspective, Shi‘ism surfaced immediately after the death of the Prophet and can be defined as “Ali’s Islam” or the “Islam of Ahl al-Bayt.” The emergence of Shi‘ism was not merely the consequence of a political conflict related to the succession of the Prophet, although this certainly helped to precipitate the events. What is important, above all, is the “central” role that Shi‘ism played in the Islamic world after the demise of the founder of Islam.[2] As a continuation and a doctrinal complement to the nubuwwah, it was imperative for the wilayah to manifest itself in the world upon the completion of the Prophetic mission.

[1] Editor’s Note: The Imams inherited and enriched Islam. As Fyzee observes, “it is not possible to dismiss contemptuously the possibility of the personal religious tradition of the Prophet, at least in some important matters, being carefully handed down to the Imams of the House of the Prophet, the people who undoubtedly had the best opportunity of knowing the true interpretation of many a principle of Islam” (4). As Nasr explains, “The sayings of the Imams are in many ways not only a continuation but also a kind of commentary and elucidation of the prophetic hadith, often with the aim of bringing out the esoteric teachings of Islam” (A Shi‘ite Anthology 7). As Algar observes, “the Imams inherited from the Prophet a certain body of teaching concerning the interpretation of the Qur’an, which they enriched as they transmitted it” (Khumayni Islamic Revolution 427 note 7).
[2] Editor’s Note: Islam teaches that God sent 124,000 prophets since the time of Adam. Every tribe and nation received a prophet. The fundamental teachings of these prophets were the same: belief in One God, belief in the prophets and messengers of God, belief in the Day of Judgment, belief in the Hereafter, promote the good and forbid the wrong. Islam accepts all past prophets, including Adam, Abraham, Moses and Jesus. In Islamic thought, Judaism was the one true religion, followed by Christianity and finally followed by Islam. In essence, Islam embraces all revealed religions, all of which taught islam or “submission” to God’s will. When the author says that Muhammad was the founder of the Islamic religion, he expresses a limited truth. In the universal order of things, all revealed religions were “Islam” and the Islamic religion is merely its final and complete manifestation.

Since wilayah implies the same possibility of prolonging the spiritual leadership and the esoteric guidance of the Prophet, it cannot be superimposed on the nubuwwah as long as the Prophet was alive.[1]

In other words, Shi‘ite Islam, which was supposed to serve as a support for the wilayah, the spiritual and esoteric dimension of the nubuwwah, must manifest itself upon the death of the Prophet. This moment, both cosmologically and metaphysically, signals the start of the wilayah, the beginning of its temporal and exoteric manifestation. It is at that point when the wilayah [guardianship] ceases to be a latent, nameless reality, and transforms itself into a manifest and named reality. Due to its cosmological and metaphysical nature, the historical apparition of Shi‘ism was meant to coincide with the cycle of wilayah, the start of ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib’s earthly mission. The esoteric function of the first Imam, hidden until the moment of the Prophet’s death, was meant to manifest itself in a partial opening of the Muhammadan wilayah and the seal of the universal wilayah. We can thus fully appreciate the importance of the designation [nass] of ‘Ali as successor [khalifah] and executor [wasi] of the Prophet.[2] ‘Ali, the

[1] Editor’s Note: It is related in al-Kafi that Imam al-Sadiq was asked whether there could be two Imams [at one time] to which he responded: “No, except in the case of one [of them] being silent” (Kulayni 35: hadith 447)
[2] Editor’s Note: The appointment of ‘Ali as Imam was co-dependent on the appointment of Muhammad as Messenger and an intrinsic aspect of the Divine Message. After receiving the revelation, the Prophet gathered the Banu ‘Abd al-Muttalib in order to make the following solemn pledge: “Whoever helps me in this matter will be my brother, my testamentary trustee [wasi], my helper [wazir], my heir and my successor after me.” ‘Ali stood before the gathering and he said: “O Messenger of Alláh, I will help you.” Then the Prophet said: “Sit down, you are my brother, my trustee, my helper, my inheritor, and successor after me” (Sadduq, Mufid, Kulayni). This event is recorded in Guillaume’s rendition of Sirat Rasul Allah by Ibn Ishaq, the oldest extant biography on the life of the Prophet, where we read that the Messenger of Allah laid his hand on

first link in the spiritual chain of the Imamate and the rukn or pillar of Islamic Gnosticism, represents the complementary dimension of the prophethood; his path, Shi‘ism, is a dimension of the depth found at the core of the Qur’anic message.

the back of ‘Ali ‘s neck and said: “This is my brother, my executor, and my successor among you. Hearken to him and obey him” [Inna hadha akhi wa wasiyyi wa khalifati fikum, fasma‘ u lahu wa ati‘uhu]. It is also recorded by Ibn Jarir, Ibn Abu Hatim, Ibn Marduwayh, Abu Na‘im, Imam Bayhaqi, Tha‘labi and Tabari (Musawi 152). It appears in Ibn ‘Asakir, Suyuti, ‘Ala’uddin al-Shafi‘i, al-Hasakani, al-Muttaqi al-Hindi; Abu al-Fida, and Haykal. It is related in somewhat different words by Ibn ‘Athir, Imam Abu Ja‘far al-Iskafi Mu‘tazali, Halabi, Tahawi, al-Maqdasi, Sa‘id ibn Mansur, Ahmad, Nasa‘i, Hakim, Dhahabi and many others (Musawi 152-54). It is also recorded by many orientalists including T. Carlyle, E. Gibbon, J. Davenport and W. Irving. This event is conveniently suppressed from some Sunni biographies of the Prophet. While the second line of the Prophet appeared in the first Arabic edition of Hasan Haykal’s Life of Muhammad, it has been deleted in the second editions and those which have followed. For more on Haykal’s censorship, see Chapter 2 of Rizvi’s Shi‘ism: Imamate and Wilayah. There are a multitude of other traditions in which the Messenger of Allah explicitly appoints ‘Ali as his heir and successor.